CHEMISTRY 
IN  AMERICA 


ROBERT  HARE 


CHEMISTRY 
IN  AMERICA 

CHAPTERS    FROM    THE    HISTORY   OF 
THE   SCIENCE  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 


BY 

EDGAR  F.  SMITH 

BLANCHARD  PROFESSOR  OF  CHEMISTRY 
UNIVERSITY   OF  PENNSYLVANIA 


ILLUSTRATED 


D.  APPLETON    AND    COMPANY 

NEW  YORK  AND  LONDON 

MCMXIV 


COPYRIGHT,  1914,  BY 
D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY 


Printed  in  the  United  States  of  America 


THIS  BOOK  IS 

AFFECTIONATELY  DEDICATED 
TO  MY  STUDENTS 


PREFACE 

The  writer  has  lectured  for  several  years  to  his  grad- 
uate students  on  the  development  of  Chemistry  in  the 
United  States.  A  mass  of  material  has  been  collected, 
most  of  which  is  not  only  interesting  but  valuable.  Re- 
peated requests  have  been  made  for  the  publication  of 
these  facts  as  a  history  of  chemistry  in  the  United  States. 
To  the  writer's  mind  the  information  in  his  possession 
is  not  sufficiently  complete  to  warrant  such  an  important 
undertaking.  The  earliest  endeavors  of  our  country's 
scientists  require  even  more  careful  and  extended  search- 
ing out. 

Three  addresses,  delivered  before  the  Chemical  Society 
of  Philadelphia,  are  included  in  the  material  collected  by 
the  author.  These  exhibit  an  earnest  interest  in  chemis- 
try in  the  early  days  of  the  Republic,  and  show,  also,  that 
despite  unfavorable  conditions  our  forefathers  were  eager 
to  cultivate  the  science  that  promised  so  much  for  their 
country.  Another  proof  of  the  genuine  appreciation  of 
the  value  of  chemistry  is  evidenced  by  the  founding  of 
two  Chemical  Societies  before  a  similar  movement  had 
been  initiated  anywhere  else  in  the  world.  Minutes  of 
these  organizations  have  not  been  discovered.  If  found, 
they  would  surely  contain  most  valuable  information. 
Other  papers,  written  during  these  early  years,  are  even 

vii 


PREFACE 

now  most  difficult  to  procure,  and  as  time  passes  will 
become  more  inaccessible. 

These  " Chapters"  are  submitted,  then,  that  chemists  of 
to-day  may  have,  in  easily  accessible  form,  copies,  at  least,  of 
some  of  the  real  treasures  of  our  science,  and  with  the  hope 
that  through  them  they  may  be  stimulated  to  search  for 
other,  still  hidden,  documents  of  equal  or  of  greater 
value.  And,  as  incentives  to  the  highest  endeavors,  there 
have  been  included  brief  sketches  of  the  life  histories  of 
such  men  as  Wolcott  Gibbs,  F.  A.  Genth,  J.  Lawrence 
Smith,  Lea,  Cooke,  Willard  Gibbs  and  others  who  have 
enriched  the  science  of  chemistry  in  this  country,  and 
whose  names  are  still  familiar  to  the  student. 

This  compilation  of  chemical  achievement  in  the  United 
States  has  brought  to  the  writer  great  joy,  and  a  fund  of 
helpful  information,  which  he  earnestly  wishes  may  be 
shared  by  all  who  chance  to  read  these  pages. 

In  conclusion,  the  author's  sincere  thanks  are  extended 
to  all  persons  and  societies  whose  letters,  books  and  docu- 
ments have  been  drawn  upon  and  used  in  this  labor  of 
love.  He  also  gratefully  acknowledges  his  indebtedness 
to  his  colleague — Professor  "Walter  T.  Taggart — for  pre- 
paring the  illustrations,  which  have  been  so  successfully 
copied  from  old  prints  and  photographs. 


viu 


CONTENTS 
CHAPTER   I 

PAGES 

CONTRIBUTIONS  OF  AMERICANS  TO  CHEMISTRY. — Early 
Papers  by  de  Normandie;  by  J.  Madison;  by  M'Caus- 
lin  .  "  »  .  .  .  >  .  .  .  .  1-11 

CHAPTER    II 

THE  CHEMICAL  SOCIETY  OF  PHILADELPHIA. — Its  Formation. — 
Thomas  P.  Smith's  Oration  before  the  Society  in  1798: 
"A  Sketch  of  the  Revolutions  in  Chemistry." — Women 
Participators  in  Chemistry. — Columbian  Mineral. — 
Obituary  of  Thomas  P.  Smith  .....  12-43 

CHAPTER    III 

THE  CHEMICAL  SOCIETY  OF  PHILADELPHIA,  CONTINUED. — Of- 
ficers of  the  Society. — Advertisements  of  the  Society. — 
Oration  by  Pascalis  in  1802  .  44-75 

CHAPTER    IV 

JAMES  WOODHOUSE. — Woodhouse's  "Chemical  Catechism." — 
"The  Young  Chemist's  Pocket  Companion"  (1797).— 
Pages  from  the  Same. — Woodhouse's  Answer  to  Priest- 
ley's Arguments  against  the  Antiphlogistic  System  of 
Chemistry:  Calcination  of  Metals  in  Air;  Fixed  Air; 

ix 


CONTENTS 

PAGES 

Finery  Cinder;  Precipitation  of  One  Metal  by  Another; 
Air  in  Charcoal. — Woodhouse's  Letter  to  Maclean. — 
Methods  of  Obtaining  Oxygenous  Gas. — Silliman's 
Word-Picture  of  Woodhouse. — Rush  on  Woodhouse. — 
Caldwell  on  Woodhouse  76-108 


CHAPTER   V 

JOSEPH  PRIESTLEY. — Priestley's  Arrival  in  America. — His 
Letters  to  Rush. — Minute  of  the  Trustees  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania. — Priestley's  Unpublished  Letter 
to  Dr.  Mitchill  (facsimile). — Description  of  Priestley 
by  Silliman.— Sketch  of  Priestley  by  Caldwell.— Obit- 
uaries of  Priestley 109-127 


CHAPTER    VI 

THOMAS  COOPER. — His  Professorship  in  Dickinson  College 
and  in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania. — Decomposition 
of  Potash  with  the  Discovery  of  Potassium. — Cooper's 
Letter  to  Dr.  Manners. — Sketch  of  the  Apparatus  Used 
in  Isolating  Potassium. — Woodhouse  and  Potassium. — 
Cooper  and  Hare. — Cooper  and  the  Possible  Origin  of  a 
Lincoln  Phrase. — Caldwell's  Estimate  of  Cooper. — Com- 
parison of  Priestley  with  Cooper. — "The  Emporium  of 
Arts  and  Sciences"  ,  ,  128-146 


CHAPTER  VII 

JOHN  MACLEAN  AT  PRINCETON. — Silliman's  Estimate  of 
Maclean. — Contemporaries  of  Maclean:  Hutchinson, 
Dexter,  Mitchill,  Adam  Seybert,  Henry  Seybert  ,  147-151 

X 


CONTENTS 
CHAPTER   VIII 

PAGES 

ROBERT  HARE. — The  Invention  of  the  Oxy-hydrogen  Blow- 
Pipe. — Memoir  on  the  Blow-Pipe  before  the  Chemical 
Society  in  1802:  Application  of  the  Blow-Pipe;  Ac- 
count of  the  Manner  and  Principle  of  Its  Action;  Heat 
of  Oxy-hydrogen  Flame  and  Its  Effect  on  Refractory 
Substances. — Silliman  and  Hare's  Blow-Pipe. — Silli- 
man's  Description  of  Life  in  Philadelphia. — Silliman's 
Account  of  Hare. — Dr.  Clarke  and  Hare's  Blow-Pipe. — 
Hare's  Deflagrator. — Hare's  Calorimotor. — A  Letter 
from  Hare  to  Silliman. — Hare  and  Galvanism. — Amal- 
gams.— Mercury  as  Cathode. — Electrolytic  Process. — 
Deflagrating  of  Carburets  .  V  .  .  .  152-205 

CHAPTER    IX 

SILLIMAN'S  SECOND  VISIT  TO  PHILADELPHIA.— COLUMBIAN- 
CHEMICAL  SOCIETY  FOUNDED  IN  1811. — Memoirs  of  the 
Society,  Volume  I:  Preface;  Papers  before  the  So- 
ciety; Officers  and  Members  .  .  %,..*.,.  .  206-218 

CHAPTER   X 

LEADING  CHEMISTS  AS  MINERALOGISTS. — Archibald  Bruce. — 
Clemson. — Vanuxem. — Torrey. — Cloud.  —  Cleaveland. — 
Gorham. — James  F.  Dana. — Samuel  L.  Dana. — Bowen. — 
Troost. — Olmsted. — J.  Redman  Coxe  and  Electric  Teleg- 
raphy. —  Cutbush.  —  Emmett. — Griscom. — McNevin  and 
the  Atomic  Theory.— W.  W.  Mather  and  the  First 
Atomic  Weight  Determination  Made  in  the  United 
States. — Lewis  C.  Beck. — J.  W.  Bailey  and  the  Common 
Blow-Pipe. — Samuel  Guthrie  and  the  Discovery  of 
Chloroform. — Alexander  Dallas  Bache  and  the  Specific 


CONTENTS 

PAGES 

Heat  of  the  Atoms  of  Bodies. — John  P.  Norton  and 
Agricultural  Chemistry. — Evan  Pugh  and  the  Assimila- 
tion of  Free  or  Uncombined  Oxygen;  His  Presidency 
of  the  Pennsylvania  State  College. — Charles  M.  Wether- 
ill. — The  Rogers  Brothers;  Robert  E.  Rogers  and  Gas 
Diffusion;  the  Rogers'  Wet  Method  for  the  Determina- 
tion of  Carbon. — Wormley's  "Micro-Chemistry  of  Poi- 
sons" .  .  219-244 


CHAPTER    XI 

OTHER  EMINENT  CHEMISTS. — James  C.  Booth's  Labora- 
tory.— T.  Sterry  Hunt's  Chemical,  Mineralogical  and 
Geological  Investigations.— J.  Lawrence  Smith's  Contri- 
butions to  the  Chemistry  of  Minerals  and  Meteorites. — 
Gibbs,  Genth  and  J.  Lawrence  Smith. — The  Cobalta- 
mines. — Mineral  Alterations 245-263 


CHAPTER   XII 

EMINENT  CHEMISTS,  CONTINUED. — Wolcott  Gibbs ;  the  Am- 
monia Cobalt  Bases;  Platinum  Metals. — Complex  In- 
organic Acids;  Electro-Analysis. — Prescott  and  Phar- 
maceutical Chemistry. — Johnson  and  Agricultural  Chem- 
istry.— Mallett  and  Atomic  Weight  Determinations. — 
M.  Carey  Lea  and  Photo-Chemistry. — Josiah  P.  Cooke 
and  Atomic  Weight  Determinations;  "The  Numerical 
Relation  Between  the  Atomic  Weights."— J.  Willard 
Gibbs  and  Physical  Chemistry;  the  "Phase  Rule"; 
Thermodynamics;  Geometrical  Methods;  Chemically 
Homogeneous  Substances. — Chemical  Publications  in  the 
United  States 264-353 

INDEX  * 351 

xii 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

ROBERT  HARE  .  . -"'£.  .  .  »  >  .  .  .  Frontispiece 
JAMES  WOODHOUSE  .  .  ,  .  .  .  .  .76 
JOSEPH  PRIESTLEY  ,  .  »  »  ....  110 
PRIESTLEY'S  HOME  AND  LABORATORY  ....  116 

THOMAS   COOPER    .        ,       , 128 

APPARATUS  FOR  THE  DECOMPOSITION  OF  POTASH       .        .    135 

JOHN   MACLEAN    .        , 148 

SAMUEL    LATHAM    MITCHILL 150 

HARE'S  CHEMICAL  LABORATORY 158 

HARE'S  HYDROSTATIC  BALANCE 164 

HARE'S  DEFLAGRATOR    .        «       .       .        .        .        .        .    188 

HARE'S  CALORIMOTOR     .        ...        .        .        .        .    189 

HARE'S  APPARATUS  FOR  OBTAINING  AMALGAMS    .        .        .    194 
A  SECTION  OF  HARE'S  AMALGAM  CRUCIBLE        .        .        .    198 
HARE'S  DISTILLATORY  APPARATUS  .        *        .        .        .        .    199 

HARE'S  APPARATUS  FOR  DEFLAGRATING  CARBURETS      .        .    202 
BENJAMIN  SILLIMAN     .        .        .        /       .        .        .        .    206 

JAMES   C.  BOOTH          .       V       .        .        .        .        .        .246 

T.  STERRY  HUNT    .        .        .        ...        .        .        .252 

J.  LAWRENCE  SMITH      .        .        .        r       .        .        .        .    258 

WOLCOTT  GIBBS 264 

M.  CAREY  LEA 278 

JOSIAH  PARSONS  COOKE 302 

J.  WILLARD  GIBBS        .......  344 


Xlll 


CHEMISTRY  IN  AMERICA 


CHAPTER   I 

A  REVIEW  of  the  contributions  of  Americans  to  the 
Science  of  Chemistry  would  be  incomplete  without 
a  consideration  of  the  publications  made  in  the  earliest 
days  in  which  scientific  matters  began  to  interest  the  people 
of  our  country.  Before  the  United  States  became  a  re- 
public, interest  in  such  matters  was  manifested.  The 
members  of  the  venerable  American  Philosophical  Society 
were  most  anxious  to  foster  investigations  along  all  lines 
of  scientific  endeavor.  This  is  evidenced  in  a  preface  to 
the  first  volume  of  the  Transactions  of  that  Society,  pub- 
lished in  1789,  in  which  the  aims  of  the  Society  were  set 
forth — to  seek  the  best  methods  of  promoting  the  fertility 
of  land  and  of  protecting  trees  and  plants  from  worms 
and  insects,  to  improve  useful  animals,  to  preserve  tim- 
ber, and  to  ascertain  the  virtues  and  use  of  many  plants; 
and,  further,  the  Society  expressly  states  that  it  will  not 
confine  its  efforts  wholly  to  these  things,  nor  will  it  ex- 
clude other  useful  subjects  such  as  Physics  and  Chemistry. 
"It  is  believed  that  the  study  of  natural  objects  would 
have  a  tendency  to  inspire  our  youth  with  a  love  of  knowl- 
edge, draw  them  gently  from  scenes  of  dissipation,  and 
animate  them  with  a  laudable  desire  of  distinguishing 

1 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

in  the  arts  and  sciences,  by  making  useful  dis- 
coveries that  would  honor  them  and  promote  the  interests 
of  the  country. "  It  is  not  surprising,  then,  that  the  earli- 
est chemical  contribution  from  this  country,  bearing  the 
date  September  10,  1768,  appears  on  the  pages  of  the 
Transactions  of  this  Society  under  the  title,  "An  Analy- 
sis of  the  Chalybeate  Waters  of  Bristol  in  Pennsylvania/' 
by  Dr.  John  de  Normandie,  in  which  the  author  remarks 
that ' '  although  it  must  be  confessed  that  a  chymical  analy- 
sis is,  in  some  measure,  an  uncertain  test  of  the  medical 
virtues  of  any  compound;  and  that  the  qualities  of  its 
constituent  parts,  when  separated,  may  not  only  differ 
from,  but  are  sometimes  opposite  to,  those  of  the  mixture ; 
yet,  when  we  want  the  testimony  of  experience,  a  chymi- 
cal analysis  is  the  best  means  of  investigating  the  truth. " 
He  then  proceeds  to  describe  his  experiences  in  the  analy- 
sis of  the  water : 

Experiment  I.  A  small  portion  of  white  oak  bark,  in- 
fused in  the  waters,  induced  an  immediate  change  from 
transparency  to  a  dark  purple  colour,  which  it  retained 
twenty-four  hours,  without  depositing  any  sediment. 

II.  Some  of  the  same  water,  after  being  made  hot,  or 
exposed  for  a  few  hours  to  the  open  air,  in  a  great  measure 
lost  its  irony  taste,  and  received  no  other  colour  than  a 
common  tincture  from  the  white  oak  bark. 

III.  One  drop  of  strong  oil  of  vitriol,  in  two  ounces  of 
the  water,  produced  no  sensible  alteration;  and  the  water 
after  standing  some  time  continues  transparent,  without 
depositing  any  okerish  or  other  sediment  to  the  sides  or 
bottom. 

IV.  01.  tart.  pr.  deliq.  dropt  in  some  of  the  same  water, 
induced  a  change  in  the  colour,  rendering  it  somewhat 

2 


CHEMISTRY   IN   AMERICA 

yellow ;  and  in  time  precipitated  to  the  bottom  of  the  cup  a 
fine  gold  coloured  oker. 

V.  Sixteen  ounces  avoirdupois,  carefully  evaporated  to 
a  dryness  in  a  China  bowl  in  B.  M.  left  one  grain  of  a  yel- 
lowish brown  powder  of  the  taste  of  tart,  tartariz. 

VI.  Linen,  moistened  with  the  scum  floating  on  the  top 
of  the  spring,  is  tinged  with  a  strong  iron  mold. 

VII.  This  water  in  weight  is  exactly  the  same  as  that  of 
rain  water. 

It  is  evident  from  these  experiments  that  Dr.  de  Nor- 
mandie  had  recourse  to  the  use  of  the  balance.  What  con- 
clusion did  the  author  draw  from  his  investigations?  He 
writes:  "It  is  sufficiently  evident  that  this  water,  in  its 
natural  state,  contains  a  large  portion  of  iron  dissolved  in 
pure  water  by  means  of  an  acid,  which  acid  is  extremely 
volatile,  and  probably  of  the  vitriolic  kind." 

In  a  communication  bearing  a  later  date  than  the  pre- 
ceding, but  published  in  the  same  Transactions,  he  adds 
some  additional  facts  concerning  the  same  water: 

I.  Upon  the  addition  of  Sp.  Sal.  Arom.  to  the  water  a 
slight  effervescence  ensued,  and  upon  standing  about  an 
hour,  a  light  yellow  matter  was  separated  and  floated  upon 
the  top  of  the  liquor. 

II.  From  a  mixture  of  lime  water,  the  same  separation 
was  made,  but  fell  to  the  bottom  of  the  liquor. 

III.  Powder 'd  chalk  added  to  the  water  produced  the 
same  separation,  but  not  in  so  short  a  time  as  in  the  pre- 
ceding experiments. 

IV.  The    residuum,    after    a    slight    calcination,    was 
strongly  attracted  by  the  magnet. 

V.  A  solution  of  crude  Sal.  Ammon.  being  mixed  with 
the  water,  was  succeeded  by  the  same  appearance  as  the 
addition  of  lime  water. 

3 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

VI.  The  residuum  after  evaporation  in  Bain.  Mar.  be- 
fore calcination,   discovered   to  the  taste   a  considerable 
portion  of  salt,  which  left  a  coldness  on  the  tongue,  and 
when  separated  by   solution,   filtration  and   evaporation, 
appeared  of  the  colour  of  salt  of  amber,  and  shot  into 
right  angled   crystals,   which   through  a  microscope  ap- 
peared beautifully  feathered;  and  from  every  experiment 
was  found  perfectly  neutral. 

VII.  Silver  immersed  for  some  time  in  the  water  ac- 
quired a  slight  yellow  colour. 

VIII.  The  residuum  thrown  on  a  red  hot  iron  sparkled 
very  much,   and  emitted  a  sulphureous  smell,   what  re- 
mained on  the  iron  had  not  the  least  perceptible  taste  of 
salt. 

IX.  The  waters,   and   the  solution  of  the  crystallized 
salt,  changed  syrup  of  violets  to  a  fine  light  green. 

The  first  four  of  these  experiments,  in  which  the  waters 
were  decomposed  as  well  by  a  volatile  alkali,  as  by  lime 
water,  and  an  absorbent  earth,  and  the  residuum  (after 
a  slight  calcination)  being  attracted  by  the  magnet,  evi- 
dently prove  that  they  are  impregnated  with  a  considera- 
ble portion  of  iron. 

The  fifth  experiment  (in  which  a  decomposition  takes 
place  by  means  of  a  double  elective  attraction)  shews  that 
the  acid  in  these  waters  has  a  stronger  affinity  with  alka- 
lies than  that  which  is  the  basis  of  Sal.  Ammoniac  (which 
is  the  marine  acid),  and  must  be  either  the  nitrous  or 
vitriolic.  And  from  a  decomposition  taking  place,  on  the 
addition  of  common  nitre  with  the  Chalybeate  waters,  in 
about  the  same  time  as  when  left  exposed  in  the  open  air, 
we  may  rationally  conclude  the  acid  to  be  of  the  vitriolic 
kind. 

The  sixth  experiment  shews  that  there  is  a  small  portion 
of  neutral  salts  in  these  waters,  which  from  the  coldness 
with  which  they  affect  the  tongue,  and  the  appearance  of 
the  crystals,  are  probably  of  the  ammoniacal  kind. 

4 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

The  seventh  and  eighth  experiments  together  with  the 
smell  of  the  bath  and  the  considerable  odour  which  the 
waters  acquire  when  kept  for  any  time,  evidently  shew  that 
they  contain  a  third  principle,  which  is  sulphur.  This, 
indeed  (as  well  as  the  salt),  is  in  a  small  quantity,  yet 
it  may  contribute  somewhat  to  the  medicinal  virtues  of 
these  springs. 

The  ninth  experiment  seems  to  prove  them  to  tend  rather 
to  an  alkaline  nature,  but  as  this  was  in  a  very  trifling  de- 
gree, it  may  be  accounted  for  from  the  escape  of  the  acid 
which  is  extremely  volatile. 

These  experiments  compared  with  those  I  have  already 
communicated  to  you  sufficiently  discover  the  constituent 
parts  of  these  waters. 

Somewhat  later,  in  the  second  volume  of  the  Transac- 
tions of  the  Philosophical  Society,  appeared  a  letter  from 
J.  Madison,  Esq.,  to  the  astronomer,  Rittenhouse,  record- 
ing certain  experiments  "upon  what  are  commonly  called 
the  Sweet  Springs. " 

Experiment  I.  Having  plunged  a  very  sensible  mer- 
curial thermometer  in  the  spring,  it  stood  at  73°.  The  tem- 
perature of  the  air  was  about  69°. 

II.  A  good  hydrometer  sunk  one-twentieth  of  an  inch 
deeper  in  common  mountain  water  than  in  the  spring. 

III.  Nut-galls  mixed  with  the  water  in   a  wine  glass 
struck  a  palish  brown,  which  shewed  that  there  was  little 
or  no  iron  in  it. 

IV.  Violets,   mixed   with   the   water   in   a   wine   glass, 
turned  it  in  a  short  time  of  a  reddish  colour.     This  was 
a  proof  that  the  waters  contained  some  kind  of  an  acid. 

V.  Having  made  a  solution  of  silver  in  the  nitrous  acid, 
and  mixed  a  little  of  it  with  the  water,  it  immediately 
became  milky,  and  a  white  pulverulent  precipitate  ensued. 

5 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

The  experiment  shewed,  by  the  whiteness  of  the  precipi- 
tate, that  the  waters  contained  nothing  sulphureous,  and 
by  the  pulverulency  of  the  precipitate  that  the  acid  con- 
tained in  the  waters  was  vitriolic. 

VI.  A  solution  of  lead  in  the  nitrous  acid  being  mixed 
with  the  water,  it  becomes  somewhat  milky,  and  a  white 
precipitate  was   observed.     This   experiment   also   shews 
that  the  waters  contain  an  acid,  most  probably  the  vitri- 
olic, and  also  that  they  contain  calcareous  earth.     Soap 
is  not  readily  miscible  with  them. 

VII.  A  solution  of  saccharum  saturni  in  the  nitrous  acid 
being  made,  and  lines  marked  upon  paper  with  it,  and 
placed  over  the  water,  the  lines  retained  their  former  col- 
our.    This  experiment  also  shews  that  the  water  contains 
nothing  sulphureous. 

VIII.  Having  poured  a  little  of  the  spirit  of  salt  into  the 
water,  after  some  time  a  coloured  precipitate  was  observed, 
but  as  the  waters  did  not  strike  a  green  or  blue  colour,  it 
shewed  that  there  was  no  copper  in  them. 

IX.  A  solution  of  vitriol  of  copper  mixed  with  the  water 
produced  a  thick,  green,  curdly  appearance,  but  did  not 
become  bluer.    This  experiment  shewed  that  there  was  no 
vol.  alkali  contained  in  them. 

X.  The  vitriolic  acid  mixed  with  the  water  suddenly 
effervesced,  and  produced  a  heat  which  raised  the  ther- 
mometer from  75°  to  83°,  by  applying  the  bulb  to  the  out- 
side of  the  glass. 

As  the  spring  is  continually  discharging  large  bubbles 
of  air,  which  rising  from  the  bottom  break  upon  the  sur- 
face of  the  water,  I  was  desirous  of  making  some  experi- 
ments upon  the  air,  in  order  to  determine  whether  the 
acidity  of  the  water  might  not  be  owing  to  it ;  and  also  to 
determine  the  nature  of  the  air,  whether  fixed  or  not.  Hav- 
ing therefore  caught  a  quantity  of  the  air  in  a  decanter, 
I  communicated  a  part  of  it  to  an  equal  bulk  of  pure  moun- 
tain water,  and  after  agitating  them  for  some  time,  gave 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

it  to  several  to  taste ;  who  agreed  that  it  had  the  taste  of 
the  spring  water.  Upon  a  second  trial  this  experiment  did 
not  succeed.  I  had  not  an  opportunity  of  trying  the  na- 
ture of  the  air  by  means  of  chalk-water,  and  was  pre- 
vented from  prosecuting  any  farther  inquiries  into  the 
nature  of  these  celebrated  waters  by  a  sudden  alarm,  to 
which  the  frontiers  were  then  continually  exposed. 

These  waters  have  been  falsely  called  sweet,  for  their- 
taste  is  evidently  acidulous.  The  experiments  also  shew 
that  they  contain  an  acid.  Their  taste  resembles  exactly 
that  of  waters  artificially  impregnated  with  fixed  air,  ex- 
tricated from  chalk,  by  means  of  the  vitriolic  acid,  and  I 
conceive  must  be  nearly  the  same  with  the  true  Pyrmont 
water.  They  have  little  or  no  smell,  do  not  form  an  in- 
crustation, nor  do  they  leave  a  deposit  upon  standing  many 
hours.  Upon  bathing  in  the  morning,  the  skin  has  a  soapy 
kind  of  feel.  This  was  not  observed  in  the  evening. 

There  is  near  this  spring  another,  a  very  strong  chaly- 
beate. 

In  1789,  Dr.  Robert  M'Causlin  communicated  "An  Ac- 
count of  an  Earthy  Substance  found  near  the  Falls  of 
Niagara  and  vulgarly  called  the  Spray  of  the  Falls, ' '  which 
contains  the  following  record  of  experiments: 

Experiment  1.  I  put  an  opaque  piece,  weighing  14 
grains,  into  the  vitriolic  acid  diluted  with  three  times  its 
quantity  of  water;  and  let  it  remain  there  twenty-four 
hours,  shaking  it  now  and  then.  Not  the  least  effervescence 
ensued,  and  on  taking  out  the  piece  it  weighed  near  one 
grain  more  than  when  it  was  put  in,  although  care  was 
taken  to  absorb  the  moisture  which  was  upon  its  surface. 
This  experiment  was  repeated  with  a  shining  piece,  and 
with  exactly  the  same  results. 

Exp.  2nd.  When  put  into  vinegar  it  did  not  produce  the 

7 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

least  effervescence.  The  vinegar  having  stood  upon  it  some 
time  was  then  poured  off  and  spirit  of  vitriol  dropped  into 
it,  yet  not  the  least  precipitation  ensued. 

That  I  might  not  be  led  into  error  by  the  vinegar  not 
being  good  of  its  kind,  I  repeated  these  experiments  with 
chalk;  and  as  both  effervescence  and  precipitation  took 
place  it  was  evident  that  there  was  no  defect  in  the 
vinegar. 

Exp.  3rd.  A  small  piece  was  exposed  to  the  heat  of  a 
blacksmith 's  forge  during  fifteen  hours.  Upon  taking  it  out 
and  pouring  water  upon  it,  no  ebullition  ensued :  neverthe- 
less it  tasted  like  weak  lime  water ;  being  then  divided  into 
two  portions,  a  solution  of  mild  fixed  alkali  was  dropped 
into  the  first,  and  immediately  a  precipitation  ensued.  The 
second  portion  being  exposed  to  the  air  in  a  tea-cup  soon 
contracted  a  changeable  coloured  film,  which  next  morning 
was  become  very  thick,  resembling  in  every  respect  that 
of  lime  water. 

Exp.  4th.  Hot  water  being  poured  upon  some  of  these 
substances,  reduced  to  powder  and  the  whole  suffered  to 
settle,  the  clear  liquor  had  not  the  taste  of  lime  water  as 
in  the  third  experiment;  nevertheless  a  solution  of  mild 
fixed  alkali  being  dropped  into  it  as  copious  a  precipita- 
tion ensued  as  when  the  earth  had  undergone  calcination. 

As  I  had  neither  the  nitrous  nor  muriatic  acids,  nor 
even  caustic  fixed  alkali,  I  had  it  not  in  my  power  to  make 
any  trials  with  them. 

From  these  experiments  we  may,  perhaps,  be  authorized 
to  draw  the  following  conclusions: 

I.  That  this  concrete  is  not  an  alkaline  earth,  as  it  is 
not  affected  either  by  the  vitriolic  or  vegetable  acids. 

II.  "We  may,  with  more  probability,  say  that  it  is  a  com- 
bination of  an  acid  with  a  calcareous  earth,  and  that  it 
might  with  propriety  be  ranked  amongst  the  selenites. 
This  supposition  is  founded  upon  the  following  reasons: 
1st,  it  appears  from  the  fourth  experiment  that  it  is  par- 

8 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

tially  soluble  in  water,  and  that  its  earth  can  be  precipi- 
tated by  a  mild  fixed  alkali:  2ndly,  the  third  experiment 
shews  evidently  that  its  earth  is  of  the  calcareous  kind, 
as  appears  by  the  styptic  taste  and  changeable  coloured 
film,  agreeing  exactly  with  common  lime  water.  It  seems 
probable  that  the  vehemence  of  the  fire  had  in  part  ex- 
pelled the  acid,  leaving  a  portion  of  the  mass  in  the  state 
of  quicklime. — It  is  well  known  that  most  waters  are  more 
or  less  impregnated  with  a  selenitic  matter.  It  is  said 
that  agitation  disposes  water  to  deposit  a  part  of  its  earth. 

It  is  also  agreed  that  water  becomes  more  pure  by  being 
freed  from  its  earthy  parts. 

These  three  considerations,  together  with  the  result  of 
the  above  experiment,  inclined  me  much  to  favour  an 
opinion  which  universally  prevails  in  this  part  of  the 
world,  viz.:  That  the  water  is  purified  in  coming  down 
the  Falls.  They  also  suggested  a  thought  to  me,  that  this 
purification  might  depend  upon  the  latter  depositing  part 
of  its  earth  in  consequence  of  the  violent  agitation  it  had 
received  in  passing  over  rapids  upwards  of  a  mile  in 
length,  and  the  tumbling  down  the  falls.  Such  a  suppo- 
sition received  great  support  from  the  substance  called  the 
Spray  being  only  found  at  the  bottom  of  the  Falls,  which 
seemed  to  show  that  a  deposition  did  actually  take  place. 
This  theory  was  very  plausible,  and  gave  me,  at  first,  much 
pleasure  in  contemplating  it :  Nevertheless  succeeding  ob- 
servations and  more  strict  inquiries  have  led  me  to  enter- 
tain many  doubts  upon  the  subject. — That  the  water  is 
much  better  at  Niagara,  which  is  about  thirteen  or  fourteen 
miles  below  the  Falls,  than  it  is  at  Fort  Schlosser,  which 
is  about  a  mile  and  a  half  above  them,  is  an  unquestionable 
fact :  Nevertheless,  I  do  not  think  that  this  can  with  strict 
justice  be  alone  attributed  to  the  deposition  of  the  earthy 
parts.  There  are  several  low  marshy  grounds  which  empty 
themselves  by  small  creeks  into  the  river  immediately  above 
the  Falls,  and  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  such  an 

9 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

impregnation  would  be  more  sensibly  perceived  at  its 
source  than  afterwards,  when  it  is  mixed  and  diluted  with 
the  water  of  the  river.  To  this  may  be  added  that  at  Fort 
Erie,  about  twenty  miles  above  the  Falls,  the  water  is 
thought  not  to  be  inferior  to  that  of  Niagara.  In  the 
second  place,  it  occurred  to  me,  that  if  any  considerable 
deposition  of  earth  took  place,  as  I  had  supposed,  the  spe- 
cific gravity  of  the  water  below  the  Falls  must  be  less  than 
that  of  the  water  above.  To  determine  this  point, 
I  weighed  a  quantity  of  water  at  Niagara  with  all  the  care 
and  exactness  I  was  master  of,  and  the  very  same  day 
made  a  journey  up  to  Fort  Schlosser,  and  weighed  the 
water  immediately  above  the  Falls.  The  specific  gravity 
was  found  to  be  exactly  the  same.  As  I  conducted  this 
experiment  with  all  possible  caution,  measuring  the  tem- 
perature of  the  water  and  also  that  of  the  room,  in  which 
it  was  weighed,  each  time  by  Fahrenheit's  thermometer,  I 
think  I  can  depend  upon  its  being  pretty  accurate.  In 
inquiring  into  the  formation  of  this  substance  called  the 
Spray,  it  must  be  observed:  1st,  that  the  rocks  near  the 
Falls  are  kept  constantly  wet  by  the  vapour  which  rises 
in  form  of  a  thick  mist ;  and  even  those  at  a  distance  of  a 
quarter  of  a  mile,  or  more,  are  affected  by  it,  when  the 
wind  blows  down  the  river ;  2ndly,  that  these  rocks,  either 
from  the  nature  of  their  structure,  or  from  the  circum- 
stance of  their  being  kept  constantly  wet ;  or  perhaps  from 
the  Spray  accumulating  between  their  layers,  and  acting 
as  a  wedge,  are  very  apt  to  crack  and  split;  and  hence 
are  almost  constantly  tumbling  down  in  larger  or  smaller 
pieces;  3rdly,  that  upon  separating  the  layers  of  these 
rocks  there  is  generally  more  or  less  of  this  substance 
called  Spray  found  between  them  and  almost  universally 
in  a  soft  state.  From  the  best  inquiries  I  have  been  able 
to  make,  during  a  residence  of  many  years,  this  substance 
is  never  found  above  the  Falls,  perhaps  never  at  a  much 
greater  distance  than  one  mile  below  them.  Close  to  the 

10 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

Falls  it  is  found  between  the  layers  of  most  of  the  rocks, 
the  quantity  lessening  in  proportion  to  the  distance  from 
the  Falls.  Upon  comparing  all  these  circumstances  to- 
gether, it  seems  probable  that  this  substance  is  formed 
by  the  moisture  arising  from  the  Falls  constantly  and 
slowly  filtering  between  the  layers  of  the  rocks,  and  it  seems 
very  possible  that  the  violent  agitation  which  the  water 
has  undergone  may  dispose  it  to  part  with  earth  more 
easily  than  it  otherwise  could  do. — The  circumstance  of 
the  Spray  not  being  found  above  the  Falls  seems  to  sug- 
gest an  opinion  that  that  part  of  the  vapour  which  hangs 
upon  the  surrounding  rocks  is  the  heaviest  as  being  most 
loaded  with  earthy  particles,  whilst  the  remainder  which 
mounts  up  is  the  purest  and  contains  little  or  no  earth. 
The  want  of  proper  rocks  to  filter  through  and  to  attract 
the  earthy  particles  may  likewise  be  a  reason  why  the 
Spray  is  not  found  above  the  Falls,  and  the  specific  gravity 
of  the  water  which  runs  down  the  channel  of  the  river 
below  the  Falls  being  equal  to  that  above  them  (which 
seems  to  argue  that  from  want  of  some  attracting  body  it 
had  parted  with  little  or  none  of  its  earth)  favours  such 
a  supposition. 

These  communications  testify  to  a  spirit  of  inquiry,  at 
least,  on  the  part  of  our  early  devotees  to  science.  They 
are,  further,  interesting  in  that  they  show  the  use  of  the 
balance  as  early  as  1768  and  indicate  the  steps  of  analysis, 
always  regarded  as  of  prime  importance. 


CHAPTER   II 

"\J"ODERN  chemistry  began  when  Lavoisier  overthrew 
A  the  views  of  Stahl  and  presented  his  own  anti- 
phlogiston  theory.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  thought 
of  the  French  School  reached  this  country  very  early  and 
there  were  here  those  who  defended  it. 

Chief  among  these  was  James  Woodhouse,  who  had 
founded  the  Chemical  Society  of  Philadelphia  in  1792. 
This  was  the  first  chemical  society  in  the  world.  As  far 
as  can  be  learned,  Woodhouse  was  its  first  and  only  presi- 
dent. This  society  lived  about  seventeen  years.  Its  mem- 
bers favored  Lavoisier's  doctrine  of  combustion.  The 
minutes  of  the  society  have  never  been  found,  although 
diligent  search  has  been  made  for  them.  There  appear 
to  have  been  two  classes  of  membership — regular  and 
junior.  On  the  title  pages  of  many  of  the  theses  offered 
by  the  students  of  the  Medical  Department  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  Pennsylvania  will  be  noticed,  after  the  name  of  the 
author,  "Junior  member  of  the  Chemical  Society  of  Phil- 
adelphia. ' ' 

Every  year  an  address  was  delivered  before  the  So- 
ciety. If  the  latter  continued  seventeen  years,  there  should 
be  that  many  addresses,  but  it  is  doubtful  whether  any 
person  living  at  the  present  time  has  seen  more  than  three 
or  four  of  them.  As  a  matter  of  historical  interest,  three 
will  be  given  in  full: 

12 


ANNUAL  ORATION 

DELIVERED  BEFORE  THE 

CHEMICAL  SOCIETY 
OF  PHILADELPHIA, 

April  11,  1798 


A  SKETCH  OF  THE  REVOLUTIONS 
IN  CHEMISTRY, 


BY 
THOMAS  P.  SMITH 


PHILADELPHIA: 

Printed  by  Samuel  H.  Smith, 
No.  118  Chestnut  Street 


MDCCXCVIII 


To  ROBERT  PATTERSON,  A.  M. 

Professor  of  Mathematics  in  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania. 

SIR: 

I  KNOW  no  person  to  whom  my  first  essay  can  be  DED- 
ICATED with  so  much  propriety  as  to  the  instructor  of 
my  early  youth.  Accept  it  then  as  a  small,  but  sincere, 
tribute  of  gratitude,  from 

Your  friend  and  pupil, 

THOMAS  P.  SMITH. 


PHILADELPHIA  LABORATORY. 

April  14th,  1798. 

In  meeting  of  the  Chemical  Society  of  Philadelphia. 
RESOLVED — That  a  copy  of  Mr.  Smith's  learned  and  in- 
genious Oration  be  requested  for  publication. 
Extract  from  the  minutes, 

GEORGE  LEE, 

Junior  Secretary. 


INTRODUCTION. 

GENTLEMEN  OF  THE  CHEMICAL  SOCIETY: 

Having  been  honoured  by  you  with  the  appointment  to 
deliver  the  ANNUAL  ORATION,  I  have,  with  diffidence,  pre- 
pared myself  to  comply  with  your  request.  I  shall  not 
attempt  to  apologize  for  any  imperfections  it  may  contain, 
however  numerous  they  may  be,  as  they  are  the  inevita- 
ble effects  of  your  choice.  But  there  is  one  liberty  I  have 
taken,  for  which  I  consider  myself  bound  to  apologize. 

The  Resolution,  in  pursuance  of  which  this  oration  is 
delivered,  directs  that  it  shall  contain  all  the  discoveries 
made  in  the  science  of  chemistry  during  the  preceding 
year.  Instead  of  complying  with  the  letter  of  this  reso- 
lution, I  have  taken  the  liberty  of  preparing  for  you  a 
sketch  of  the  revolutions  in  chemistry.  To  this  I  have 
been  induced  from  a  consideration  of  the  utility  and 
pleasure  that  always  result  from  a  knowledge  of  the  origin 
of  our  opinions.  He  who  should  take  up  his  abode  on  the 
banks  of  a  stream,  and  quench  his  thirst  from  its  waters, 
could  not  feel  uninterested  in  a  knowledge  of  its  source, 
and  the  course  it  has  run.  Knowing  over  what  substances 
its  waters  have  passed,  he  is  enabled  in  some  measure  to 
judge  of  their  purity,  and  is  put  on  his  guard  against  any 
bad  effects  that  may  be  produced  by  them.  Thus,  by 
knowing  the  origin  of  our  opinions  and  the  channels 
through  which  they  have  come  to  us,  we  can  form  a  tolera- 
ble judgment  of  what  particular  prejudices  they  are  most 
likely  to  be  biassed  by,  and  be  thus  put  on  our  guard 
against  receiving  them  without  the  strictest  examination. 
Such  were  the  reasons  which  induced  me  to  write,  and 
which  I  hope  will  induce  you  to  pardon  me  for  delivering 
before  you,  A  SKETCH  OF  THE  REVOLUTIONS  IN  CHEMISTRY. 

17 


The  origin  of  CHEMISTRY,  like  the  origin  of  every  other 
science  that  early  dawned  upon  mankind,  lies  buried  be- 
neath the  dark  fables  of  antiquity.  The  ascription  of  the 
discovery  of  truths,  or  the  invention  of  arts,  beneficial  to 
mankind,  to  supernatural  beings,  was  so  general  during 
those  dark  ages  of  ignorance  and  superstition,  that  we  are 
not  to  wonder  that  the  science  of  chemistry  was  supposed 
to  have  had  a  divine  origin. 

If  music,  poetry,  and  painting;  if  the  arts  of  making 
wine,  raising  grain,  healing  the  sick,  had  their  tutelary 
deities  who  were  supposed  to  have  taught  them  to  man,  if 
the  Egyptian,  when  he  beheld  the  Nile,  without  any  ap- 
parent cause  to  him,  who  was  ignorant  of  its  source,  peri- 
odically overflow  its  banks,  fertilize  his  land,  and  then 
peaceably  retire  within  its  proper  limits,  supposed  it  to 
descend  from  heaven,  should  we  not  expect  that  chemistry, 
a  science  to  which  almost  all  others  owe  their  birth,  would 
have  been  supposed  to  have  been  derived  from  the  GODS? 
Accordingly  we  find  this  to  be  the  prevailing  opinion^ 
among  the  ancients.  But  however  interesting  an  investi- 
gation of  these  fables  may  be  to  such  as  imagine  them 
allegorical  accounts  of  the  origin  of  chemistry,  we  must 
pass  them  over  as  the  unmeaning  offspring  of  IGNORANCE 
and  SUPERSTITION. 

Were  we  to  endeavor  to  search  out  the  true  origin  of 
chemistry,  we  should  find  ourselves  bewildered  to  little  or 
no  purpose  among  the  multifarious  traditions  of  antiquity ; 
like  the  traveller  who  should  in  vain  attempt  to  ascertain 
the  true  source  of  a  great  river,  formed  by  the  union  of 
a  number  of  small  streams,  we  should  after  much  labour 
and  disappointment  give  up  the  pursuit  as  one  in  which 
the  effect  produced  would  not  repay  us  for  the  labour 
endured. 

The  Arabians  appear  to  have  been  the  first  people  who 
made  any  considerable  progress  in  chemistry.  For,  how- 
ever great  the  extent  of  knowledge  in  this  science  the 

18 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

votaries  of  antiquity  may  ascribe  to  the  Egyptians,  we 
cannot  consider  them  as  having  made  any  great  progress 
in  it.  It  is  true  they  had  carried  on  some  of  the  practical 
parts  of  it,  such  as  the  working  of  metals,  imitating 
precious  stones,  and  painting  on  glass,  to  a  considerable 
degree  of  perfection ;  yet  they  do  not  appear  to  have  pos- 
sessed any  knowledge  of  its  general  principles.  It  was 
as  yet  confined  to  the  forge  of  the  smith  and  the  work- 
shop of  the  lapidary;  and  they  expected  their  processes  to 
terminate  favourably  only  because  their  predecessors,  who 
perhaps  were  taught  by  some  happy  accident,  promised 
them  success.  Their  priests,  indeed,  pretended  to  exten- 
sive knowledge  in  this  as  well  as  in  every  other  science, 
but  as  they  have  left  us  no  data  by  which  we  can  judge 
of  their  knowledge,  we  are  led  to  believe  that  in  these 
pretensions,  as  well  as  to  those  in  great  sanctity,  their  ob- 
ject was  merely  to  gain  an  ascendency  over  weak  minds. 
The  simplest  ideas  represented  by  their  hieroglyphick  char- 
acters were  converted  by  the  eye  of  IGNORANCE,  who  ven- 
erates everything  she  does  not  understand,  into  the  most 
sublime  truths.  Hence,  arose  the  idea  that  these  priests, 
who  perhaps  understood  little  more  than  how  to  delude 
a  superstitious,  ignorant  people,  were  possessed  of  a  knowl- 
edge of  all  the  arcana  of  nature. 

Nor  need  we  be  surprised  that  this  was  the  case  in 
those  dark  ages,  when  even  in  this  enlightened  century 
men  are  found  weak  enough  to  spend  their  time  in  the  solu- 
tion of  ancient  fables,  in  search  of  truths  which  are  only 
to  be  discovered  by  contemplating  the  works  of  nature, 
and  who  have  the  effrontery  to  declare  that  in  these  puer- 
ilities they  can  easily  discern  that  the  ancients  were  pos- 
sessed of  a  knowledge  of  almost  all  that  the  moderns  have 
thought  themselves  the  discoverers.  So  far,  indeed,  has 
this  blind  attachment  to  antiquity  been  carried  that  it 
need  not  excite  your  surprise,  if  some  of  these  fabulous 
commentators,  more  deeply  learned  than  his  fellow  la- 

19 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

bourers,  should,  by  means  of  a  smoking  chalice  found  on 
the  pillar  of  Trajan,  transfer  from  Lavoisier  to  an  Egyp- 
tian priest  the  honour  of  the  pneumatic  theory ;  or,  by  the 
bowl  of  the  sacrifice  overflowing  with  blood,  painted  on  a 
Mummy,  deprive  PRIESTLEY  of  the  honour  of  the  discovery 
of  the  oxigination  of  the  blood. 

To  the  Arabians,  then,  is  to  be  ascribed  the  honour  of 
being  the  first  nation  in  which  chemistry  ceased  to  be  noth- 
ing more  than  a  knowledge  of  a  few  processes  in  the  arts 
confined  to  the  work-shops  of  illiterate  mechanics.  To  this 
nation  we  are  indebted  for  its  application  to  medicine 
which  was  first  effected  in  the  tenth  century  by  Rhases,  a 
physician  of  the  hospital  of  Bagdad.  It  now  became  an 
object  worthy  the  attention  of  men  of  letters  and  genius. 
The  phenomena  of  nature  were  scrutinized  with  an  at- 
tentive eye,  new  processes  were  instituted  for  determin- 
ing her  laws,  and  bodies  before  supposed  simple,  were 
analized  by  means  of  newly  discovered  agents.  Such  was 
the  situation  of  chemistry  in  Arabia,  when,  by  means  ap- 
parently little  favourable  to  the  dissemination  of  science, 
it  was  transplanted  into  the  west  of  Europe. 

Towards  the  close  of  the  eleventh  century  all  Christen- 
dom was  roused  to  arms  by  the  declamation  of  an  obscure 
individual  of  the  name  of  Peter,  sirnamed  the  Hermit. 
This  man,  who  to  the  most  barbarous  ferocity  added  the 
most  refined  cunning,  travelled  over  Europe  preaching  up 
a  croisade  to  recover  from  the  hands  of  the  infidels  the 
holy-land.  As  his  hearers  were  plunged  in  the  most  bar- 
barous ignorance,  their  passions  were  easily  wrought  upon, 
and  this  man  who  in  the  eighteenth  century  would  be  con- 
fined in  a  mad-house,  or  treated  with  contempt,  in  the 
eleventh  raised  an  army  of  700,000  men  to  effect  his  absurd 
scheme.  This  army  of  which  BIGOTRY  and  SUPERSTITION 
led  the  van,  and  MURDER  and  RAPINE  closed  the  rear,  was 
composed  of  men  of  every  rank  and  profession.  And  this 
army,  however  unfit  a  medium  it  may  appear  for  the  trans- 

20 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

mission  of  science,  was  the  means  by  which  chemistry  was 
first  transplanted  into  Europe. 

That  men  actuated  by  such  motives  as  the  croisaders 
were,  who,  with  the  symbols  of  peace  in  one  hand,  and  a 
reeking  sword  in  the  other,  marked  their  footsteps  with 
the  blood  of  women  and  children ;  who  had  left  their  peace- 
ful habitations,  their  wives,  their  children  and  all  the  joys 
of  domestic  happiness,  to  enforce  by  the  sword  the  truth 
of  a  religion  whose  basis  is  charity,  and  to  wrest  from  the 
hands  of  the  infidels,  in  another  quarter  of  the  world,  a 
barren  tract  of  land  almost  unfit  for  the  habitation  of 
man,  because  it  was  the  birthplace  of  their  religion;  that 
these  men  should  be  the  disseminators  of  science  is  a 
paradox  in  the  history  of  the  human  mind  that  at  first 
view  appears  inexplicable.  But  the  difficulty  vanishes 
when  we  recollect  that,  happily  for  the  cause  of  science, 
the  chemistry  of  the  Arabians  was  deeply  tinged  with 
alchemical  notions.* 

The  croisaders,  who  were  blind  to  the  charms  of  science, 
were  far  from  being  so  to  those  of  gold.  As  soon,  there- 
fore, as  chance  threw  in  their  way  pretenders  to  the  art  of 
converting  the  metals,  their  avarice  was  roused,  and  for  the 
sake  of  the  promised  wealth  they  condescended  to  study 
chemistry.  After  the  defeat  of  this  immense  army,  many, 
who  had  set  off  with  a  design  of  converting  the  infidels 
to  Christianity  by  means  of  the  sword,  returned  to  en- 
deavor to  convert  all  the  metals  into  gold  by  means  of 
their  newly  acquired  chemical  agents. 

Europe  soon  swarmed  with  people  in  search  of  the  agent, 
by  means  of  which  the  baser  metals  were  to  be  converted 
into  gold  and  silver,  and  to  which  they  had  given  the  name 
of  the  Philosopher's  stone.  All  classes  of  people  were 
seized  with  the  mania.  The  indigent  man,  who  was  insti- 
gated to  study  by  the  hopes  of  acquiring  wealth,  but  who 
for  want  of  money  to  commence  his  operations  was  unable 

*  See  note  A  at  the  end. 

21 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

to  proceed,  was  sure  to  find  a  patron  among  the  wealthy, 
who,  upon  the  condition  of  sharing  in  the  discovery,  ad- 
vanced large  sums  of  money  for  carrying  on  the  opera- 
tions. Processes  of  the  most  extensive  and  expensive  na- 
ture were  instituted  in  search  of  this  chimerical  substance, 
and  the  most  important  discoveries,  though  different  from 
that  most  hoped  for,  were  made.  No  expense  of  labour  or 
time  was  spared,  and  immense  fortunes  were  dissipated  by 
men  who  would  not  have  advanced  the  smallest  sum  for 
the  discovery  of  any  truth  whatever  from  which  they  could 
not  hope  to  derive  some  pecuniary  advantage.  Thus  was 
avarice  enlisted  in  the  cause  of  science,  and  thus  that  worst 
passion  of  the  human  breast,  which  has  ever,  but  at  this 
single  period,  retarded  the  progress  of  science,  now  tended 
in  the  most  astonishing  manner  to  its  promotion. 

That  branch  of  chemistry  called  mineralogy  particu- 
larly flourished  during  these  researches.  The  metals  were 
the  objects  to  which  the  attention  of  the  alchemists  was 
immediately  directed.  Hence  considerable  progress  was 
made  in  the  art  of  extracting  them  from  their  ores  and 
working  them. 

From  an  idea  entertained  by  some  of  the  alchemists  that 
the  philosopher's  stone  was  to  be  the  result  of  an  intimate 
union  of  sulphur  and  mercury,  this  semi-metal  became  in 
a  peculiar  manner  the  object  of  their  attention.  The  re- 
sult was  that  the  materia  medica  became  enriched  with 
many  invaluable  preparations  of  it. 

This  period  gave  birth  to  a  number  of  men  of  the  most 
respectable  talents;  at  the  head  of  these  we  must  rank 
Roger  Bacon,  who  flourished  in  the  thirteenth  century,  and 
whose  mind  was  deeply  tinged  with  alchemical  notions. 

In  the  course  of  some  chemical  experiments,  Bacon  hav- 
ing mixed  nitre,  sulphur  and  charcoal  together,  in  a  mor- 
tar, they  by  accident  took  fire  and  produced  a  loud  explo- 
sion; this  first  suggested  to  him  the  idea  of  making  gun- 
powder, which,  from  a  false  idea  he  entertained  of  the 

22 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

terrible  effects  that  would  be  produced  by  its  being  gener- 
ally known,  he  concealed  in  his  writings  under  the  form  of 
an  anagram. 

In  the  sixteenth  century  a  new  sect  of  alchemists  ap- 
peared, who  were  in  search  of  a  medicine  that  should  cure 
all  diseases. 

The  Arabians,  in  their  treatises  on  alchemy,  had  em- 
ployed that  figurative  language  which  is  so  universal  in 
the  East.  The  agents  they  used  for  bringing  metals  to 
perfection  they  called  medicines,  the  imperfect  metals  sick 
men,  and  gold  a  sound,  lively,  healthy,  durable  man.  When 
the  Europeans  procured  translations  of  these  works  many 
of  them  understood  all  these  figurative  expressions  in  a 
literal  sense,  and  when  in  the  course  of  their  reading  they 
met  with  passages  like  the  following  from  Geber,  "Gold 
thus  prepared  cures  lepras,  cures  all  diseases,"  and  in 
which  he  only  meant  it  would  transmute  all  other  metals 
into  gold,  they  understood  it  to  be  a  medicine  by  which  all 
the  diseases  to  which  the  human  frame  is  liable  might  be 
cured.*  Such  was  the  origin  of  a  sect  of  alchemists  to 
whose  industry  we  are  indebted  for  the  most  valuable  ac- 
cessions to  the  materia  medica. 

At  the  head  of  this  sect  of  alchemists  stood  Paracelsus, 
a  name  familiar  to  every  chemist.  He  was  born  near  Zu- 
rich in  Switzerland,  in  1493.  From  his  earliest  youth  he 
seems  to  have  possessed  all  that  wildness  of  imagination 
which  so  strongly  characterizes  his  countrymen.  The  mo- 
ment he  conceived  a  thing  possible,  he  formed  a  theory 
for  the  performance  of  it,  and  then  proclaimed  to  the  world 
he  had  effected  it.  As  soon,  therefore,  as  he  conceived  of 
the  possibility  of  forming  a  panacea,  he  commenced  his 
search  after  it,  and  emboldened  by  the  success  of  some  of 
his  mercurial  preparations  he  declared  he  possessed  the 
power  of  closing  forever  the  door  of  the  tomb. 

Having  likewise  formed  an  idea  of  a  liquor  that  should 

*  JJoerhaave, 

23 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

dissolve  every  substance  in  nature,  and  to  which  he  gave 
the  name  of  the  alcahest,  he  declared  to  the  world  he  had 
discovered  it,  and  published  a  book  in  which  he  gave  an 
account  of  many  of  its  operations.  This  book  abounds  with 
the  wildest  extravagances  and  most  palpable  contradic- 
tions. In  several  passages  of  it  he  tells  of  his  having  dis- 
solved various  substances  in  the  alcaJiest,  in  vessels  her- 
metically sealed,  in  which  operations,  although  the 
substances  were  readily  dissolved,  the  vessels  appear  to 
have  remained  undissolved  by  this  universal  solvent.  Van 
Helmont  has  likewise  written  much  on  the  subject  of  the 
alcahest,  and  has  the  effrontery  to  declare  that  he  pos- 
sessed for  a  considerable  time  a  vial  containing  this  won- 
derful liquor,  but  that  it  was  given  to  him,  and  afterwards 
taken  away  from  him. 

In  addition  to  the  panacea  and  alcahest,  Paracelsus  de- 
clared himself  possessed  of  the  philosopher's  stone.  Thus 
he  persuaded  the  greater  part  of  his  contemporaries  that 
he  was  possessed  of  what  they  conceived  the  two  greatest 
blessings  man  can  enjoy,  the  unlimited  power  of  increasing 
his  wealth  and  prolonging  his  life.  Against  the  truth  of 
an  opinion  so  generally  entertained  by  his  contemporaries 
we  shall  offer  but  one  objection.  Paracelsus  at  the  latter 
end  of  his  life  wandered  about  Europe  in  poverty,  and 
died  at  the  age  of  forty-eight,  to  the  disgrace  of  his  boasted 
aurum  potabile,  azophs,  little  demons,  elixirs,  and  immortal 
catholicons,  after  a  few  days'  sickness  at  a  public  inn  at 
Saltzburg,  although  he  had  flattered  himself  that  by  the 
use  of  his  elixer  proprietatis  he  should  live  as  long  as 
Methuselah. 

The  failure  of  Paracelsus  did  not  intimidate  others  from 
pursuing  the  chimera,  among  the  number,  Cassius,  known 
by  his  precipitate  of  gold ;  Libavius,  whose  name  is  affixed 
to  a  preparation  of  tin;  Sir  Kenelm  Digby,  who  believed 
in  the  sympathetic  action  of  medicaments;  Van  Helmont, 
famous  for  his  medical  opinions  and  chemical  notions ;  and 

24 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

Borrichius,  a  Danish  chemist,  who  first  discovered  the 
method  of  inflaming  the  oils  by  nitric  acid,  are  particularly 
to  be  noticed  for  their  talents.  To  the  labours  of  these 
men  we  are  indebted  for  many  valuable  medicines.  But 
in  a  peculiar  manner  they  demand  our  gratitude  for  the 
intimate  union  they  have  produced  between  medicine  and 
chemistry,  the  consequence  of  which  has  been  that  disease 
has  been  stripped  of  half  its  terrors. 

Amid  the  dark,  gathering  clouds  of  ignorance  and  super- 
stition, that  hung  over  all  Europe  during  this  century, 
one  ray  of  light  burst  forth  so  pure  and  strong  as  to  indi- 
cate a  rapid  dispersion  of  the  worse  than  Egyptian  dark- 
ness of  the  age.  Francis  Bacon,  a  name  that  must  at  once 
draw  forth  our  pity  and  admiration,  appeared  at  the  latter 
end  of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  laid  the  foundation  of 
natural  philosophy  on  the  true  and  immutable  basis  of 
reason.  For  some  centuries  past  the  world  had  been  en- 
gaged not  in  discussing  philosophical  truths,  but  the 
opinions  of  philosophers.  The  book  of  Nature,  from 
whence  alone  true  knowledge  can  be  drawn,  was  entirely 
neglected,  and  the  works  of  Aristotle  and  Plato  were  made 
use  of  to  supply  its  place.  Instead  of  endeavoring  to  dis- 
cover her  laws  by  observing  their  effects,  they  attempted 
to  explain  them  by  the  categories  of  the  Peripatetics  or  the 
ideas  of  the  Platonists.  But  Bacon,  perceiving  that  these 
ignes  fatui  only  served  to  lead  astray,  chose  for  his  guide 
the  invariable  light  of  reason.  By  this  he  soon  perceived 
that  a  knowledge  of  the  laws  of  Nature  can  only  be  ac- 
quired by  observing  her  operations.  He  therefore  advised 
mankind,  instead  of  spending  their  time  in  interpreting 
the  idle  dreams  of  mystical  philosophers,  to  forsake  their 
air-built  castles  and  by  experiment  erect  their  systems  on 
the  adamantine  basis  of  truth.  Not  content,  like  the  gen- 
erality of  reformers,  with  barely  pointing  out  the  road 
they  ought  to  pursue,  this  able  pioneer  proceeded  a  con- 
siderable distance  in  it,  and  cleared  the  way  to  many  of 

25 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

the  greatest  discoveries  of  his  successors.  But  either  from 
that  love  of  unintelligible  systems  which  is  so  common  in 
ignorant  men,  or  from  a  dread  of  entering  on  a  new  road, 
the  termination  of  which  they  could  not  perceive,  it  was 
some  time  before  mankind  could  be  drawn  from  the  beaten 
track. 

About  this  time,  Glauber,  a  German,  rendered  essential 
service  to  chemistry,  by  examining  the  residues  of  opera- 
tions which  had  heretofore  been  thrown  aside  as  useless 
and  distinguished  by  the  names  of  caput  mortuum,  or, 
terra  damnata.  By  this  he  discovered  the  sulphate  of 
soda,  called  after  him  Glauber's  salts,  and  the  sulphate  of 
ammoniac;  and  threw  great  light  on  the  processes  for  pre- 
paring mineral  acids. 

At  the  commencement  of  the  seventeenth  century  the 
alchemical  mania  arrived  at  its  acme.  In  Germany  a  so- 
ciety was  formed  under  the  name  of  the  Rosicrucians,  of 
which  little  more  is  known  than  that  they  pretended  to  be 
in  possession  of  the  secrets  of  transmutation,  of  the  uni- 
versal sciences  and  medicine,  with  the  science  of  occult 
things.  In  France,  England,  Spain,  and  most  of  the  other 
nations  of  Europe,  the  belief  in  alchemy  was  carried  so 
far  that  decrees  were  issued  by  government  forbidding 
it  to  be  practiced,  lest  the  value  of  the  current  coin  of 
the  nation  should  be  destroyed,  or  individuals  practicing 
it  be  rendered  too  powerful. 

This  triumph  of  error  over  reason,  like  every  other  tri- 
umph of  the  same  nature,  was,  however,  doomed  to  have  an 
end.  Father  Kircher,  a  Jesuit,  author  of  a  great  work  en- 
titled "Mutidus  Subterraneus,"  and  Corringuis,  a  learned 
physician,  commenced  an  attack  on  it,  which,  by  the  aid  of 
the  philosophical  chemists  who  made  their  appearance  some 
years  after,  totally  destroyed  this  chemical  monster. 

Chemistry  has  hitherto  consisted  of  a  multitude  of  facts, 
disseminated  without  any  regard  to  arrangement  over 
many  loose  dissertations  on  its  various  objects.  "As  yet/' 

26 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

as  Macquer  observes,  "  there  were  many  branches  of  chem- 
istry in  being,  though  the  science  itself  was  not  yet  in 
existence/'  Towards  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury James  Barnet,  physician  to  the  king  of  Poland,  first 
collected  and  arranged  the  principal  known  facts  in  a 
methodical  manner,  and  added  observations  thereon.  Boh- 
nius,  professor  at  Leipsic,  likewise  formed  a  methodical 
collection.  But  Joachim  Becher  of  Spires  wrote  a  work 
entitled  "Physica  Subterranea,"  which  from  the  precision 
with  which  the  facts  are  related,  and  his  observations  on 
them,  so  far  eclipsed  the  writings  of  Barnet  and  Bohnius 
that  their  works  are  now  totally  neglected,  and  their 
names  almost  forgotten.  This  work,  in  which  there  are 
a  number  of  conjectures  verified  by  late  discoveries,  had 
the  honour  of  having  for  a  commentator  one  of  the  bright- 
est ornaments  chemistry  can  boast — I  mean  the  celebrated 
STAHL. 

George  Ernest  Stahl  was  born  at  Onold  in  Franconia, 
in  1660.  From  his  earliest  youth  he  appears  to  have  been 
attached  to  the  study  of  chemistry.  But  in  a  particular 
manner  his  mind  was  directed  to  ascertain  the  true  prin- 
ciple of  inflammability. 

Until  the  time  of  Becher,  the  most  vague  notions  were 
entertained  on  this  subject,  the  chemists  supposing  it  to 
be  a  sulphur  pervading  all  inflammable  bodies.  Becher, 
perceiving  that  sulphur  did  not  exist  in  many  animal  and 
vegetable  substances,  although  inflammable,  asserted  that 
it  was  not  the  principle  of  inflammability,  but  that  this 
principle  resided  in  a  substance  common  to  sulphur  as 
well  as  all  other  inflammable  bodies ;  this  substance  he  sup- 
posed to  be  of  a  dry  nature,  and  therefore  called  it  an 
earth,  and  to  distinguish  it  from  all  other  earths,  he  called 
it  PHLOGISTON.  This  doctrine  was  adopted  by  Stahl,  who 
so  far  improved  and  extended  it,  that  he  is  now  generally 
considered  as  its  founder. 

The  human  mind  delights  in  speculative  reasoning.  It 

27 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

can  scarcely  receive  two  connected  facts  without  wishing 
to  draw  a  general  conclusion.  It  is  this  spirit  of  generali- 
zation which  has  given  birth  to  some  of  the  most  sublime 
as  well  as  the  wildest  theories.  Without  it  the  mind  of 
man  would  be  nothing  better  than  a  wild  chaos  of  facts. 
Instead  of  a  well  constructed  temple,  throughout  the  whole 
of  which  reigns  the  most  perfect  harmony,  it  would  be  a 
mere  quarry  in  which  although  all  the  materials  for  con- 
structing the  temple  are  contained,  yet  they  are  in  so 
rude  and  deranged  a  state  that  they  are  neither  useful 
nor  elegant.  The  assent  of  mankind,  it  is  true,  is  often 
obtained  to  the  wildest  theories;  yet  even  these,  false  as 
they  may  be,  serve  the  purpose  of  giving  some  sort  of  ar- 
rangement to  all  the  known  facts,  and  any  arrangement, 
however  bad,  is  better  than  none.  Nor  need  we  be  afraid 
that  any  false  theory,  however  specious  it  may  appear, 
will  be  permanent;  for,  WHATEVER  SYSTEM  Is  NOT 
FOUNDED  IN  TRUTH  MUST  FALL! 

As  soon  then  as  Becher's  doctrine  of  phlogiston,  as  im- 
proved by  Stahl,  became  generally  known,  it  was  adopted 
by  the  undissenting  voice  of  the  chemical  world.  It  an- 
swered for  the  limited  state  of  chemical  knowledge,  and  the 
philosophers  from  his  time  until  within  a  few  years  past 
knew  of  no  phenomena  in  combustion  that  they  could 
not  account  for  satisfactorily,  to  themselves,  by  this 
theory. 

About  this  time  lived  Mayow,  an  English  physician,  fa- 
mous for  a  number  of  ingenious  conjectures.  According 
to  Dr.  Haller,  he  supposed  that  nitre  floating  in  the  air 
was  absorbed  into  the  lungs  and  formed  the  animal  spirits, 
the  heat  of  the  system,  and  imparted  colour  to  the  blood. 
Blumenbach  says  he  was  one  of  the  first  authors  who  wrote 
concerning  the  factitious  airs,  especially  that  now  called 
dephlogisticated  air,  or  oxigene;  the  "spiritus  nitri 
arms"  of  Mayow.  The  work  which  contains  his  peculiar 
notions  on  this  subject  is  entitled  "Trqctq,tu$  duo;  de 

28 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

respiratione,  et  de  rachitide,"  published  at  Oxford  in  1668. 
He  was  but  thirty-four  years  of  age  when  he  died. 

We  are  now  entering  on  the  most  brilliant  era  that  has 
ever  occurred  in  this  science.  Hitherto  the  progress  of 
chemistry  had  been  slow  and  uncertain.  It  depended  on 
accidental  discoveries  made  in  search  of  chimerical  objects. 
Its  votaries  were  not  led  on  so  much  by  the  love  of  truth 
as  the  love  of  life  and  wealth.  But  the  theory  of  Becher 
and  Stahl  gave  a  new  direction  to  the  pursuits  of  chem- 
ists, and  instead  of  the  philosopher's  stone,  alcahest  and 
panacea,  their  labours  were  now  directed  to  the  establish- 
ment of  a  theory  of  combustion. 

Stahl,  whose  mind  was  entirely  occupied  with  demon- 
strating his  favorite  theory,  and  observing  all  the  supposed 
modifications  of  phlogiston,  seems  to  have  overlooked  the 
influence  of  air  in  all  the  phaenomena  which  he  attributes 
to  his  inflammable  principle.  The  necessity  of  attending 
to  this  fluid  in  the  operations  of  chemistry  had  already 
been  demonstrated  by  Boyle  and  Hales.  The  difference 
between  chemical  events  that  happen  in  like  circumstances 
in  air  and  in  vacuo  had  been  observed  by  the  former  and 
the  latter  had  procured  from  various  substances  different 
kinds  of  air.  He  thought  air  was  the  cause  of  solidity 
in  bodies. 

Dr.  Priestley,  in  pursuing  the  experiments  of  Hales, 
discovered  many  elastic  fluids  which  had  heretofore  been 
entirely  overlooked  by  the  chemists.  Dr.  Hales  had  ob- 
tained air  from  minium,  but  he  had  not  investigated  its 
properties.  On  the  first  of  August,  1774,  a  day  which  will 
ever  be  conspicuous  in  the  annals  of  science,  Priestley  ob- 
tained this  air,*  and  found  it  much  purer  than  atmospheric 
air.  In  the  course  of  some  experiments  he  instituted  on 
this  air,  he  found  it  to  be  the  cause  of  the  red  colour  ac- 

*  Called  by  him  dephlogisticated  air,  from  his  supposing  it  to  be 
air  deprived  of  all  phlogiston,  and  by  the  French  chemists  oxigene, 
from  its  being  the  principle  of  acidification. 

29 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

quired  by  the  blood  in  passing  through  the  lungs.  This 
discovery  has  laid  the  foundation  of  a  theory  of  animal 
heat  that  has  thrown  more  light  on  the  science  of  physi- 
ology than  perhaps  any  other  discovery  which  has  ever 
been  made.* 

Mr.  Lavoisier  soon  after  proved  that  the  weight  acquired 
by  heated  bodies  is  owing  to  an  absorption  of  oxigene.f 
To  this  discovery  we  are  indebted  for  the  French  system  of 
chemistry. 

Before  entering  on  this  revolution,  the  greatest  per- 
haps that  has  ever  occurred  in  this  or  any  other  science, 
you  will  pardon  me  for  occupying  a  few  minutes  of  your 
time  in  paying  the  debt  of  gratitude  we  owe  to  him  by 
whom  it  was  effected. 

Lavoisier  was  born  at  Paris,  August  16th,  1743.  From 
his  earliest  youth  he  maintained  a  genius  of  no  common 
order.  At  the  age  of  three  and  twenty  he  obtained  from 
the  Academy  of  Sciences  a  gold  medal  for  a  dissertation 
on  the  best  mode  of  enlightening  during  the  night  the 
streets  of  a  great  city.  Two  years  afterwards  he  was  made 
a  member  of  that  justly  celebrated  society.  As  yet  his 
mind  was  confined  to  no  particular  branch  of  science,  but 
each  in  its  turn  was  benefited  by  his  attention.  Until 
at  length,  about  1770,  Lavoisier,  struck  with  the  impor- 
tance of  the  discoveries  which  had  recently  been  made  by 
Priestley,  Black,!  Cavendish,  and  Macbride,  relative  to 
elastic  fluids,  turned  his  attention  to  this  inexhaustible 
source  of  discovery. 

He  had  now  entered  on  a  career  which  was  to  rank 
his  name  with  those  of  Bacon,  Newton  and  Hartley. 

*  See  note  on  combustion. 

f  See  note  B. 

$  In  1775  Dr.  Black  discovered  -fixed  air  or  the  carbonic  acid  in 
calcareous  earth.  He  affirmed  that  the  dissipation  of  this  air  con- 
verts it  into  lime,  and  that,  by  restoring  it  again  to  the  lime,  cal- 
careous earth  is  regenerated. 

30 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

His  time  and  fortune  were  devoted  to  furthering  dis- 
coveries in  chemistry,  and  his  house  became  a  great 
laboratory  filled  with  every  species  of  apparatus  neces- 
sary in  this  science.  Here  he  made  welcome  men  of 
science  to  whatever  nation  they  might  belong,  or  to  what- 
ever opinions  they  might  be  attached.  Twice  a  week  he 
held  assemblies  at  his  house,  to  which  was  invited  every 
person  most  eminent  in  geometrical  or  physical  knowledge. 
Here  all  the  new  chemical  opinions  which  appeared  in 
Europe  were  discussed  and  tested  by  experiment.  Before 
this  assembly  Lavoisier  tried  all  his  experiments,  and 
listened  with  candour  to  the  discussion  of  them.  To  this 
line  of  proceeding  we  are  indebted  for  that  accuracy  of 
experimenting,  which  has  been  introduced,  instead  of  the 
former  incorrect  mode.  After  his  experiments  and  the- 
ories had  passed  this  strict  ordeal,  and  not  before,  he  gave 
them  to  the  world. 

It  is  to  these  assemblies  we  are  indebted  for  the  new 
nomenclature,  which  the  French  chemists  have  introduced 
into  this  science.*  This  nomenclature  has  tended  con- 
siderably, by  banishing  much  of  the  technical  jargon  of 
chemistry,  to  its  promotion,  and  leaves  nothing  for  us 
to  wish,  but  that  they  who  made  us  so  happy  a  com- 
mencement had  extended  it  still  farther.  We  may 
consider  it  as  a  happy  omen  of  what  we  are  to  expect 
from  an  introduction  of  a  philosophical  language  into  the 
sciences. 

The  effects  of  these  labours  of  Lavoisier  are  to  be  found 
in  forty  memoirs,  replete  with  the  grandest  ideas  relative 
to  the  various  phenomena  of  chemistry,  published  by  him, 
from  the  year  1772  to  1793,  in  the  transactions  of  the 
French  Academy.  In  1784,  he  formed  an  idea  of  collecting 
into  a  single  work  all  the  discoveries  he  had  given  to  the 
world  at  different  periods.  This  work,  which  did  not  ap- 
pear until  1789,  exhibited  the  simplicity  of  his  system  in 

*See  note  CL 

31 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

so  forcible  a  point  of  view  that  it  soon  gained  the  almost 
universal  suffrage  of  the  chemical  world. 

Hitherto  we  have  beheld  Lavoisier  only  as  the  philoso- 
pher, rending  the  veil  of  nature,  and  drawing  into  view  all 
her  native  charms.  Let  us  now  view  him  in  the  no  less 
exalted  station  of  private  life.  If,  as  philosopher,  he  raises 
our  astonishment  by  the  brilliancy  of  his  discoveries  and 
profundity  of  his  reasonings;  as  a  man  he  no  less  excites 
our  admiration  by  his  strict  performance  of  all  the  duties 
of  a  friend,  a  relative,  and  a  citizen.  In  short,  Lavoisier 
was  one  of  those  truly  exalted  characters  that  prove  the 
folly  of  the  observation,  made  by  malicious  ignorance,  that 
a  love  of  science  and  a  performance  of  the  duties  of  life 
are  incompatible. 

Our  picture  has  as  yet  displayed  none  but  the  most 
pleasing  colouring. — Would  to  heaven  I  could,  consistently 
with  my  duty,  put  it  out  of  my  hands,  unfinished  as  it  is. 
But  there  is  one  dark  shade,  which,  to  complete  it,  must 
be  laid  in,  and  which  will  efface  the  pleasure  arising  from 
a  contemplation  of  its  beauties. 

Lavoisier  was  strongly  attached  to  the  cause  of  SCI- 
ENCE AND  TRUTH,  and  consequently  of  that  of  LIBERTY. 
When  the  French  revolution  burst  forth  on  the  astonished 
world,  he,  therefore,  early  appeared  as  its  advocate.  Until 
at  length  Robespierre,  having  descended  from  the  ele- 
vated station  of  a  Representative  of  the  People,  to  the  de- 
based one  of  their  Tyrant,  perceiving  that  a  love  of  science 
and  truth  naturally  produced  a  love  of  liberty,  determined 
on  the  destruction  of  all  those  who  united  these  dangerous 
qualities.  Lavoisier  was  one  among  the  many  marked  out 
for  destruction.  No  other  excuse  could  be  found  for  his 
execution,  than  that  he  had  been  a  farmer-general  under 
the  old  government.  But  this  excuse,  weak  as  it  was,  was 
sufficient  for  the  tyrant,  who  had  the  power  and  the  will 
to  destroy  him.  Let  us  draw  a  veil  over  the  fatal  catas- 
trophe that  has  deprived  the  republic  of  science  of  its 

32 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

brightest  ornament.*  And  while  we  mourne  the  loss  of 
this  benefactor  of  mankind,  let  us  not  lose  sight  of  the 
pleasing  hope  that  he  and  his  murderer  shall  be  remem- 
bered as  they  deserve.  Yes!  let  us  cherish  the  pleasing 
idea,  that  while  the  name  of  Robespierre  shall  be  remem- 
bered with  deserved  detestation  along  with  those  of  Nero 
and  Caligula  to  excite  indignation  against  tyranny  and 
its  supporters,  that  of  Lavoisier  shall  excite  in  the  breast 
of  every  votary  of  science  the  warmest  gratitude! 

From  the  time  of  Stahl  to  that  of  Lavoisier  the  metals 
were  supposed  to  be  compound  bodies,  formed  by  the  union 
of  phlogiston  with  peculiar  earthy  bases.  During  their 
combustion  or  calcination  they  were  supposed  to  part  with 
this  phlogiston  to  the  surrounding  bodies.  Even  the 
weight  they  acquired  by  this  supposed  loss  of  one  of  their 
constituent  principles  did  not  for  a  long  time  shake  the 
belief  of  the  followers  of  Stahl  in  their  favorite  theory. 
They  all  seemed  eager  to  discover  some  opiate  by  which 
they  might  lull  their  reason  to  sleep.  The  celebrated  Boyle 
affirmed  that  the  increase  of  weight  in  calcined  metals  is 
owing  to  the  combination  of  the  matter  of  fire.  Boerhaave 
attributed  it  to  the  surrounding  bodies  which  deposit  them- 
selves upon  the  metal:  While  the  generality  of  the  fol- 
lowers of  the  doctrine  of  phlogiston  supposed  it  to  be  the 
principle  of  levity.  Such  are  the  powerful  effects  pro- 
duced by  the  union  of  a  great  name  with  any  theory  what- 
ever; like  the  head  of  a  monarch  stamped  upon  base 
metal,  it  serves  to  give  it  currency  for  a  time  among  the 
unobserving  part  of  mankind. 

At  length  Lavoisier  proved  that  the  increased  weight  of 
the  calx  is  owing  to  the  absorption  of  oxigene,  and  that 

*  When  the  order  for  his  execution  was  presented  to  Lavoisier  he 
requested  a  few  days  to  complete  a  course  of  experiments  he  had 
commenced,  but  this  was  refused,  and  he  was  hurried  off  to  the 
scaffold.  What  may  we  not  have  lost! 

33 


CHEMISTRY    IN   AMERICA 

it  is  in  the  exact  proportion  of  the  quantity  of  this  gas 
absorbed.  He  now  undertook  to  reverse  the  theory  of 
Beeher  and  Stahl.  Instead  of  supposing  that  in  combus- 
tion phlogiston  is  separated  from  the  combustible  body, 
he  accounted  for  this  phenomenon  by  the  body  absorbing 
oxigene  from  the  atmosphere,  which  he  discovered  con- 
sisted of  nearly  twenty-eight  parts  of  oxigene  united  to 
seventy-two  of  nitrogene. 

The  supporters  of  the  doctrine  of  phlogiston,  thinking 
it  in  vain  to  attempt  any  longer  to  uphold  a  system 
founded  on  the  existence  of  so  chimerical  a  substance  as 
they  had  heretofore  described,  and  perceiving  that  in 
many  cases  of  the  solution  of  metals  in  acids  inflammable 
air  is  generated,  declared  this  hydrogenous  gas  to  be  phlo- 
giston in  an  uncombined  state.  No  sooner  had  they  given 
to  this 

• "airy  nothing 

"A  local  habitation  and  a  name/' 

than  they  doomed  it  to  destruction.  "While  it  re- 
tained its  Protean  powers  of  at  one  time  being  the 
principle  of  levity,  and  at  another  possessing  gravity,  it 
was  impossible  to  grasp  it  firmly  enough  to  destroy  it ; 
but  it  now  became  a  fair  object  of  discussion. 

The  French  chemists  were  for  some  time  at  a  loss  to  ac- 
count for  this  disengagement  of  hydrogene.  At  length  Mr. 
Cavendish  discovered  that  water  is  a  compound  body, 
formed  by  the  union  of  the  basis  of  hydrogene  and  oxi- 
gene. The  source  from  which  the  inflammable  air  arises 
now  evidently  appeared  not  to  be,  as  their  opponents  sup- 
posed, from  the  metal  during  solution  parting  with  its 
phlogiston,  but  from  the  water  combined  with  the  acid 
being  decomposed,  its  oxigene  uniting  to  the  metal  whilst 
its  hydrogene  is  set  at  liberty. 

Lavoisier  has  applied  his  theory  of  the  calcination  of 
metals  to  the  phenomena  of  every  other  species  of  com- 

34 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

bustion  with  so  happy  an  effect  that  the  doctrine  of  phlo- 
giston has  become  almost  universally  exploded.*  That 
theory,  which  but  a  few  years  since  commanded  the  un- 
dissenting  voice  of  the  chemical  world,  is  now  almost 
totally  forsaken.  Still,  however,  the  tottering  dome  of 
this  once  mighty  fabric  is  supported  by  one  solitary  pil- 
lar, so  well  constructed  as  by  its  single  force  to  uphold  it 
against  the  warring  elements,  nor  can  it  ever  fall  till  this 
pillar  is  removed.  Never  can  the  doctrine  of  phlogiston  be 
said  to  be  totally  destroyed,  until  it  shall  cease  to  rank 
among  its  supporters  the  name  of  PRIESTLEY. 

I  shall  now  present  you  with  the  last  and  most  pleasing 
revolution  that  has  occurred  in  chemistry.  Hitherto  we 
have  beheld  this  science  entirely  in  the  hands  of  men;  we 
are  now  about  to  behold  women  assert  their  just,  though 
too  long  neglected  claims,  of  being  participators  in  the 
pleasures  arising  from  a  knowledge  of  chemistry.  Already 
have  Madame  Dacier  and  Mrs.  Macauly  established  their 
right  to  criticism  and  history.  Mrs.  Fulhame  has  now 
laid  such  bold  claims  to  chemistry  that  we  can  no  longer 
deny  the  sex  the  privilege  of  participating  in  this  science 
also.f  What  may  we  not  expect  from  such  an  accession 
of  talents?  How  swiftly  will  the  horizon  of  knowledge 
recede  before  our  united  labours!  And  what  unbounded 
pleasure  may  we  not  anticipate  in  treading  the  paths  of 
science  with  such  companions  ?  J 

I  shall  now,  gentlemen,  conclude  with  a  few  observa- 
tions on  the  utility  of  a  general  diffusion  of  chemical 
knowledge  throughout  America. 

Living  as  we  do  in  a  new,  extensive,  and  unexplored 

*See  note  D. 

f  Mrs.  Fulhame  has  lately  written  an  ingenious  piece  entitled  ' '  An 
Essay  on  Combustion,  with  a  view  to  a  new  art  of  dyeing  and 
painting,  wherein  the  phlogistic  and  anti-phlogistic  hypotheses  are 
proved  erroneous. ".  Since  the  delivery  of  this  oration  she  has  been 
elected  a  corresponding  member  of  this  Society. 

$  See  note  E. 

35 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

country,  separated  by  an  immense  ocean  from  all  other 
civilized  nations,  we  must  feel  ourselves  deeply  interested 
in  a  knowledge  of  its  mineral  productions,  and  this  can 
only  be  arrived  at  through  the  medium  of  chemistry.  As 
far  as  our  very  limited  knowledge  has  yet  gone,  we  have 
every  reason  to  believe  that  nature  has  been  far  from 
bestowing  her  blessing  upon  it  with  a  parsimonious  hand. 
Abounding  as  it  does  with  the  richest  ores  of  the  most 
valuable  metals,  we  should  be  committing  a  crime  of  the 
blackest  dye,  were  we  through  wilful  ignorance  to  trample 
under  our  feet  these  invaluable  gifts  of  the  CREATOR. 

The  only  true  basis  on  which  the  INDEPENDENCE  of  our 
country  can  rest  are  AGRICULTURE  and  MANUFACTURES. 
To  the  promotion  of  these  nothing  tends  in  a  higher  de- 
gree than  chemistry.  It  is  this  science  which  teaches  man 
how  to  correct  the  bad  qualities  of  the  land  he  cultivates 
by  a  proper  application  of  the  various  species  of  manure, 
and  it  is  by  means  of  a  knowledge  of  this  science  that  he 
is  enabled  to  pursue  the  metals  through  the  various  forms 
they  put  on  in  the  earth,  separate  them  from  substances 
which  render  them  useless,  and  at  length  manufacture 
them  into  the  various  forms  for  use  and  ornament  in  which 
we  see  them.  If  such  are  the  effects  of  chemistry,  how 
much  should  the  wish  for  its  promotion  be  excited  in  the 
breast  of  every  American!  It  is  to  a  general  diffusion  of 
a  knowledge  of  this  science,  next  to  the  VIRTUE  of  our 
countrymen,  that  we  are  to  look  for  the  firm  establish- 
ment of  our  INDEPENDENCE.  And  may  your  endeavors, 
GENTLEMEN,  in  this  cause,  entitle  you  to  the  gratitude 
of  your  FELLOW-CITIZENS. 

NOTES 
NOTE  A — p.  21 

The  origin  of  alchemy  cannot  be  traced  farther  back  with  any 
certainty  than  the  second  or  third  century  of  the  Christian  era. 

36 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

In  all  probability  it  owed  its  birth  to  the  general  adoption  of  the 
proposition  that  "All  bodies  are  but  different  modifications  of  the 
same  primitive  matter/'  the  philosophers  supposing  that  this  mod- 
ification might  be  changed  at  pleasure  by  means  of  certain  chem- 
ical agents. 

NOTE  B— p.  30 

Key,  in  the  last  century,  ascribed  the  increased  weight  of  me- 
tallic substances  when  they  are  said  to  have  lost  their  phlogiston, 
to  its  true  cause,  the  absorption  of  air,  but  on  such  weak  grounds 
that  he  is  as  little  entitled  to  the  honour  of  a  discoverer,  as  a 
successful  dreamer  is  to  that  of  a  prophet;  nor  can  I  with  justice 
ascribe  this  honour  to  Dr.  Hales,  though  he  extracted  air  from 
minium;  as  he  imputed  the  increase  of  weight  not  only  to  the 
air,  but  also  to  sulphur  which  he  imagined  is  absorbed  from  air. 

Kirwan  on  Phlogiston. 

NOTE  C— p.  31 

The  almost  innumerable  technical  terms  which  had  been  in- 
troduced into  chemistry,  before  the  formation  of  the  new  nomen- 
clature, had  for  a  long  time  been  a  cause  of  general  complaint 
among  chemists.  The  same  substance  had  often  eight  or  ten  dif- 
ferent names  applied  to  it,  most  of  which  either  conveyed  no  idea 
of  its  properties,  or  what  is  still  worse  indicated  very  opposite 
ones  to  those  it  possessed.  Within  the  little  time  that  elapsed 
from  Dr.  Black's  discovery  of  carbonic  acid  it  had  been  known 
by  the  names  of  Fixed  Air,  Aerial  Acid,  Mephilic  Acid,  Cre- 
taceous Acid,  etc.;  but  the  terms  Oil  of  Tartar  by  the  Bell,  Oil 
of  Vitriol,  Butter  of  Antimony,  Butter  of  Arsenic,  Flowers  of 
Zinc,  etc.,  as  applied  to  these  several  compositions,  are  still  worse, 
as  they  serve  not  only  to  burden  our  memories  with  a  useless 
quantity  of  words,  but  to  give  us  a  false  idea  of  the  nature  of 
the  substances  they  are  put  for;  as  there  does  not  exist  in  the 
mineral  kingdom,  properly  speaking,  either  Butter,  Oil,  or 
Flowers.  A  reform  in  the  chemical  nomenclature  became  there- 
fore absolutely  necessary  to  the  promotion  of  science,  or  rather 
it  became  necessary,  where  so  much  error  existed,  to  pull  down 
the  old  system  and  erect  a  new  one. 

37 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

In  1782,  M.  de  Morveau  proposed  a  reformation  of  the  nomen- 
clature, and  in  1787,  M.  Lavoisier,  by  the  assistance  of  many  of 
the  best  chemists  of  France,  produced  the  following  excellent 
plan,  which  is  now  generally  adopted. 

1.  All  those  substances  which  cannot  be  separated  into  two  or 
more  different  principles,  by  any  known  process,  although  they 
may  be  compound  bodies,  yet  are  to  be  considered,  until  an  analy- 
sis can  be  made,  as  elementary,  and  names  given  to  them  indi- 
cating their  principal  properties:  thus  the  basis  of  vital  or  pure 
air  is  called  oxigene  from  the  Greek  words  o£vs,  acid,  and  yetvo/xat, 
/  beget,  as  by  a  union  of  this  substance  with  certain  bases  all  the 
acids  are  formed;  and  the  basis  of  inflammable  air  is  called  hy- 
drogene    from   the    Greek    words    v8oy>,    water,  and    yctvo/uu,    I 
beget,  as  it  is  by  a  union  of  this  substance  with  oxigene  that 
water  is  formed. 

2.  When  two  simple  substances  are  united,  the  name  of  the 
compound  is  to  be  so  formed,  by  a  general  rule,  as  at  once  to  con- 
vey the  idea  of  its  constituent  principles. 

Thus  all  the  combinations  of  those  metals  with  oxigene,  which 
do  not  by  such  an  union  form  acids,  are  called  by  the  general 
names  of  oxides,  as  in  the  case  of  the  union  of  oxigene  with  lead 
forming  red  lead;  which,  according  to  the  new  nomenclature,  is 
called  oxide  of  lead. 

According  to  the  new  theory  the  acids  are  all  formed  by  the 
union  of  oxigene  with  certain  bases,  the  names  of  the  acids  are 
therefore  all  made  by  giving  to  the  names  of  their  bases,  where 
they  are  known,  or  when  their  bases  are  not  known  to  the  name 
of  the  source  from  whence  they  are  derived,  the  general  termina- 
tion ic.  Thus  that  acid  formed  by  the  union  of  oxigene  and  sul- 
phur is  called  the  sulphuric  acid,  and  the  acid  procured  from  the 
Fluor  Spar,  the  basis  of  which  is  unknown,  is  called  fluoric  acid. 
But  there  are  acids  the  bases  of  which  are  not  fully  saturated 
with  oxigene,  these  are  distinguished  by  the  termination  ous,  thus 
when  sulphur  is  not  quite  saturated  with  oxigene  it  is  called  sul- 
phureous acid. 

3.  The  neutral  salts  are  all  formed  by  the  union  of  the  dif- 
ferent acids  with  alkaline,  earthy  or  metallic  bases.  Their  names 
are  made  by  a  union  of  the  names  of  the  acids  of  which  they  are 
composed  terminating  with  at  when  they  are  perfect  acids,  or 

38 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

fully  saturated  with  oxigene,  and  ite  when  they  are  imperfect, 
and  the  names  of  the  bases  to  which  they  are  united.  Thus 
Glauber's  salts,  which  are  formed  by  the  union  of  the  sulphuric 
acid  and  soda,  are  called  sulphate  of  soda,  and  a  combination  of 
the  sulphureous  acid  and  iron  is  called  sulphite  of  iron. 

In  favour  of  this  theory  of  a  nomenclature,  little  need  be  said, 
as  it  bears  internal  evidence  of  its  utility.  Of  the  immense  quan- 
tity of  technical  words  which  are  saved  by  it  I  shall  give  the  single 
instance  of  the  neutral  salts. 

There  are  at  present  thirty  acids  known,  capable  of  forming 
neutral  salts  by  their  union  with  three  alkalies,  eight  earths,  and 
fourteen  metals,  in  all  twenty-five  bases,  which  would  make  750 
different  neutral  salts.  If  to  these  we  add  those  which  could  be 
formed  by  many  of  these  acids  in  a  state  not  fully  saturated  with 
oxigene,  we  shall  have  not  far  short  of  1,000  different  neutral 
salts.  Allowing  the  former  arbitrary  mode  of  naming  them  to 
prevail,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  each  of  these  salts  on  an 
average  would  have  in  the  course  of  time  at  least  two  names,  we 
should  then  have  had  2,000  names  for  them.  But  happily  for  the 
cause  of  science  our  memories  are  saved  from  being  oppressed  by 
this  immense  mass  of  technical  rubbish  by  the  proper  applica- 
tion of  the  third  rule. 

For  a  full  account  of  this  nomenclature  see  the  memoirs  of 
Messrs.  Lavoisier,  De  Morveau,  Berthollet,  De  Fourcroy,  Hassen- 
f  ratz,  and  Adet ;  first  published  in  the  transactions  of  the  Academy 
of  Science  in  Paris,  in  1787,  and  since  translated  into  English 
and  published  by  Mr.  St.  John. 

Query.  Might  not  the  nomenclature  be  extended  to  all  combi- 
nations of  two  simple  earths  by  using  the  name  of  the  earth 
found  in  the  greatest  quantity  as  a  substantive,  and  that  of  the 
one  found  in  the  least  quantity  as  an  adjective.  Thus  a  stone 
formed  by  the  union  of  a  smaller  quantity  of  silex  united  to  a 
greater  quantity  of  alumine  would  be  called  a  silicious  alumine, 
whereas  if  the  silex  predominated  it  would  be  an  aluminous  silex. 
It  might,  perhaps,  be  also  applied  to  the  union  of  a  simple  earth 
with  a  neutral  salt,  as  in  marble,  which  is  composed  of  alumine 
and  carbonate  of  lime,  which  would  then  be  called  aluminous 
carbonate  of  lime? 

39 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 


NOTE  D— p.  35 

Lavoisier  instead  of  supposing,  with  the  disciples  of  Becher  and 
Stahl,  that  all  inflammable  bodies  possess  a  certain  principle, 
which  they  called  phlogiston,  the  giving  out  of  which  causes  all 
the  various  phenomena  of  combustion,  says  that  they  entirely 
arise  from  the  decomposition  of  oxigenous  gas,  which  is  a  com- 
pound body  formed  by  the  union  of  a  certain  basis  with  the 
matter  of  light  and  heat, — the  basis  uniting  to  the  inflammable 
body  while  its  caloric,  or  matter  of  heat,  and  light  are  set  at  lib- 
erty. This  theory  they  found  upon  the  following  principles. 

1.  Combustion  is  never  known  to  take  place  without  the  pres- 
ence of  oxigene. 

2.  In    every    known    combustion    there    is    an    absorption    of 
oxigene. 

3.  There  is  an  augmentation  of  weight  in  the  products  of  com- 
bustion equal  to  the  weight  of  the  oxigene  absorbed. 

4.  In  all  combustion  there  is  a  disengagement  of  light  and  heat. 
I  shall  therefore  take  the  liberty  of  suggesting  the  following 

queries. 

Query  1.  Should  we  not  consider  combustion  as  an  effect  of 
the  elective  attraction  between  the  basis  of  the  gas  and  the  com- 
bustible body  being  stronger  than  that  between  the  same  basis 
and  caloric? 

Query  2.  If  so,  would  not  the  same  phaenomena  take  place 
were  we  to  heat  a  body  in  any  other  gas  whose  basis  has  a 
stronger  elective  attraction  to  the  body  than  to  caloric  and  light, 
as  do  when  such  bodies  are  heated  in  oxigene? 

Query  3.  In  the  combustion  of  hydrogene  with  oxigene  do  we 
not  find  this  to  take  place?  Does  not  the  basis  of  the  hydrogenous 
gas,  which  was  retained  in  a  gaseous  state  by  its  union  with 
caloric  and  light,  unite  with  the  basis  of  the  oxigenous  gas,  and 
form  water,  and  at  the  same  time  part  with  its  matter  of  heat 
and  light? 

Query  4.  Should  we  conclude  because  those  substances  which 
burn  the  readiest  in  oxigene  will  not  burn  in  any  other  gas,  that 
no  substances  are  to  be  found  that  will?  Ought  we  not  on  the 
contrary  to  seek  these  substances  among  those  which  do  not  burn 

40 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

at  all,  or  very  slowly  in  this  gas,  as  the  probability  is  that  the 
same  substance,  which  has  a  very  strong  elective  attraction  to 
the  basis  of  one  gas,  will  have  but  a  slight  one  to  that  of  every 
other? 

Respiration  may  be  considered  as  a  slow  species  of  combustion. 
The  oxigene  of  the  atmospheric  air  inhaled  is  decomposed,  its 
basis  unites  to  the  blood,  through  the  coatings  of  the  blood  ves- 
sels in  the  lungs,  and  gives  it  a  red  colour,  while  its  matter  of 
heat  is  set  at  liberty  and  forms  the  animal  heat  of  the  system. 

NOTE  E— p.  35 

The  following  short  extract  sets  chemistry,  as  a  proper  study 
for  females,  in  so  forcible  and  just  a  point  of  view  that  I  cannot 
refrain  from  the  pleasure  of  inserting  it. 

"Chemistry  is,  a  science  particularly  suited  to  women,  suited  to 
their  talents  and  their  situation;  chemistry  is  not  a  science  of 
parade,  it  affords  occupation  and  infinite  variety;  it  demands  no 
bodily  strength,  it  can  be  pursued  in  retirement;  it  applies  im- 
mediately to  useful  and  domestic  purposes;  and  whilst  the  in- 
genuity of  the  most  inventive  mind  may  be  exercised,  there  is  no 
danger  of  inflaming  the  imagination;  the  judgment  is  improved, 
the  mind  is  intent  upon  realities,  the  knowledge  that  is  acquired 
is  exact,  and  the  pleasure  of  the  pursuit  is  a  sufficient  reward  for 
the  labour." 

Letters  for  Literary  Ladies. 

Some  idea  of  the  regard  in  which  the  author  (T.  P. 
Smith)  of  the  preceding  essay  was  held  may  be  gathered 
from  the  following  quotation: 

"While  we  express  our  hopes  that  the  whole  history  of 
this  Columbian  mineral  will  soon  be  made  known,  we  sin- 
cerely deplore  the  afflicting  and  untimely  death  of  our 
friend  and  countryman,  Mr.  Thomas  P.  Smith,  from  whose 
industry,  acuteness  and  zeal  in  chemical  (and,  indeed,  al- 
most the  whole  circle  of  physical)  researches,  Mr.  Hatchett 

41 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

informs  the  Royal  Society  he  had  anticipated  important 
aid  in  this  inquiry. 

We  think  it  only  a  tribute  due  to  justice,  on  this  oc- 
casion, to  insert  the  following  account  of  a  gentleman, 
whose  memory  we  cherish  with  warm  affection,  and  whose 
fate  will  be  a  subject  of  lasting  regret  to  every  friend  of 
science  in  this  country. 

City  of  Washington,  October  8,  1802. 

Died  on  the  22nd  ultimo,  at  sea,  Thomas  P.  Smith,  in 
consequence  of  the  bursting  of  a  gun. 

Few  men  merit,  and  still  fewer  obtain,  a  long  posthu- 
mous fame.  Their  virtues  and  talents  are  generally  de- 
rived from  local  or  temporary  events,  with  the  benefits 
of  which  they  are  forgotten.  But  the  subject  of  these  re- 
marks lived  not  for  himself,  the  particular  spot  that  gave 
him  birth,  or  the  country  of  which  he  was  proud  to  be  a 
citizen.  His  heart  exulted  in  the  happiness,  and  sympa- 
thized in  the  miseries,  of  all  mankind;  while  his  mind 
exerted  its  great  energies  in  their  service. 

Before  he  reached  the  period  of  manhood,  he  aban- 
doned the  frivolous  sports  of  youth,  and  applied  himself 
to  science.  With  but  feeble  advantages  of  education,  at 
eighteen  he  was  a  respectable  mathematician,  and  at  twenty 
an  eminent  chemist.  From  this  period,  nature,  in  all  her 
forms,  attracted  his  attention,  and  he  incessantly  mingled 
the  labours  of  the  closet  with  an  observation  penetrating, 
practical  and  profound.  Shaking  off  the  dull  logic  and 
inglorious  trammels  of  the  schools,  his  mind  disdained 
other  materials  of  judgment  than  well-attested  facts,  an- 
alysed and  applied  by  itself. 

Though  fascinated  to  enthusiasm  with  the  charms  of 
natural  science,  he  was  not  regardless  of  moral  knowledge. 
He  was  an  early,  uniform,  inflexible  disciple  of  repub- 
lican liberty;  in  his  devotion  to  which  he  was  as  firm  as 
the  rocks  which  he  so  often  trod. 

42 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

Two  years  ago  he  went  to  Europe,  principally  to  ex- 
tend his  qualifications  for  mineralogical  and  chemical  pur- 
suits. But  as  the  powers  of  his  mind  were  not  circum- 
scribed by  common  limits,  they  embraced  the  whole  circle 
of  science.  He  travelled  through  England,  Germany, 
France,  Sweden,  Denmark,  and  other  countries.  His  asso- 
ciates, wherever  he  moved,  were  the  learned  and  the  liberal. 

With  the  fruits  of  wide  experience,  he  sailed,  about 
two  months  since,  for  his  native  land.  He  had  viewed 
the  proudest  countries  of  Europe;  but  he  wrote  to  his 
friends  that  he  had  seen  no  country  for  which  he  would 
consent  to  abandon  the  United  States,  where  freedom  and 
industry  confer  happiness.  He  exulted  in  the  prospect  of 
soon  meeting  his  friends,  and  in  passing  in  their  society, 
and  in  literary  pursuits,  the  remainder  of  his  days. 

But  he  has  been  disappointed.  He  is  gone.  With  the 
youth  of  five  and  twenty  has  perished  not  the  blossoms, 
but  the  mature  fruit  of  age.  Eulogium  is  often  extrava- 
gant, but  truth  sometimes  sustains  her  boldest  panegyric: 
and  when  she  declares  that  Thomas  P.  Smith,  for  science, 
had  no  superiors  of  his  age  in  the  United  States,  and 
promised,  in  the  progress  of  life,  to  have  few  equals,  she 
pronounces  the  sacred  language  of  truth. — NATIONAL 
INTELLIGENCER. 


CHAPTER  III 

riiHE  oration  delivered  by  Smith  is  a  history  of  the  de- 

-••  velopment  of  chemistry  and  of  chemical  theory;  it 
does  not  contain  any  new  discoveries. 

From  a  number  of  old  manuscripts  this  additional  in- 
formation concerning  the  Chemical  Society  of  Philadelphia, 
its  members  and  purposes,  has  been  gleaned. 

Ruschenberger  (Institution  of  College  of  Physicians  of 
Philadelphia)  mentions  that  "the  Chemical  Society  of 
Philadelphia  held  stated  meetings  weekly,  in  the  Phila- 
delphia Laboratory,  or  Anatomical  Hall.  Some  of  the 
Fellows  of  the  College  of  Physicians  were  members  of  it. 
The  chief  purpose  of  this  association  was  to  acquire  in- 
formation relative  to  the  minerals  of  the  United  States. 
A  standing  committee  of  five  was  charged  with  the  duty 
of  analyzing  any  mineral  which  might  be  submitted  to  it, 
provided  it  were  sent  free  of  expense,  with  an  account  of 
the  locality  and  situation  in  which  it  was  found.  The 
analyses  were  made  without  charge.  Notice  of  these  terms 
was  published  in  several  newspapers  of  the  United  States. 

"The  officers  of  the  Society  in  1802  were  James  Wood- 
house,  Pres. ;  Felix  Pascalis  and  Jno.  Redman,  Vice-Pres. ; 
Wm.  S.  Jacobs,  Librarian;  Win.  Brown,  Jno.  S.  Dorsey, 
Curates ;  John  Y.  Bryant,  Treasurer ;  Thomas  Brown,  Sec- 
retary. " 

44 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

The  advertisements  of  the  Society  are  extremely  inter- 
esting and  worthy  of  consideration: 

1.  To  THE  CITIZENS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. — In  consid- 
eration of  the  general  utility  that  would  result  from  the 
citizens  of  the  United  States  being  able  to  procure,  free 
from  expence,  an  analysis  of  any  ores  or  mineral  sub- 
stances, "The  Chemical  Society  of  Philadelphia,"  on  the 
20th  of  June,  1797,  passed  the  following  resolution : — 

''Resolved,  That  a  committee  of  five  members  be  ap- 
pointed, whose  business  it  shall  be  to  notify,  in  the  differ- 
ent papers  of  the  United  States,  and  by  circular  letters, 
that  they  will  give  an  analysis  of  all  minerals  which  may 
be  sent  them." 

In  conformity  to  the  above  resolution,  we  hereby  give 
notice,  that  we  will  analyze  any  mineral  which  may  be 
sent  us,  provided  it  be  sent  free  of  expence,  and  accom- 
panied with  an  account  of  the  place  and  situation  in  which 
it  was  found. — 

Committee : 

THOMAS  P.  SMITH,  No.  19  N.  5th  St. 
JAMES  WOODHOUSE,  No.  13  Cherry  St. 
SAMUEL  COOPER,  No.  178  S.  Front  St. 
ADAM  SEYBERT,  No.  191  N.  Second  St. 
JOHN  C.  OTTO,  No.  37  N.  Fourth  St. 
The  Weekly  Magazine,  Saturday,  Feb.  3d,  1798. 

2.     To  THE  CITIZENS  OP  THE  UNITED  STATES: 

The  Chemical  Society  of  Philadelphia,  desirous  of  dif- 
fusing information  throughout  the  United  States  relative 
to  the  manufacture  of  Nitre,  have  appointed  a  Committee 
to  collect  into  one  view  all  the  different  processes  carried 
on  for  that  purpose  in  different  countries. 

In  pursuance  of  their  appointment,  they  now  take  this 
method  of  requesting  any  person  who  possesses  information 

45 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

relative  to  the  manufacturing  of  this  valuable  neutral-salt 
to  forward  it  to  them  (post  paid). 

Information  from  such  persons  as  carry  on  manufac- 
tories of  it  with  their  results  would  be  peculiarly  accept- 
able. They  would  be  obliged  to  any  persons  who  would 
furnish  them  with  accurate  descriptions  of  the  situation, 
soil,  temperature,  &c.,  &c.,  in  those  places  in  which  Nitre 
is  found  in  a  native  state. 

THOMAS  P.  SMITH, 

19  North  Fifth  Street 

ROBERT  PATTERSON. 

TAQ  o    4.1.  -ci      ^  ou      .^COMMITTEE. 
148  South  Fourth  Street 

JOHN  C.  OTTO, 

37  North  Fourth  Street 

(The  Medical  Repository,  Volume  II,  page  120  (1799). 

3.  The  Chemical  Society  of  Philadelphia,  besides  a 
variety  of  other  minerals  from  different  parts  of  the 
United  States,  have  lately  received  a  specimen  of  the 
golden  auriferous  pyrites  from  Virginia.  From  10  pwts. 
to  13  grains  of  gold,  24  karats  fine,  have  been  extracted. 

A  quantity  of  Manganese  has  been  sent  to  the  Society 
from  the  County  of  Albemarle,  where  it  is  found  in  abun- 
dance. This  mineral  now  retails  in  Philadelphia  at  the 
rate  of  11  pence  per  pound.  It  is  consumed  in  this  coun- 
try principally  by  potters.  It  is  used  in  Europe  in  bleach- 
ing and  in  the  manufacture  of  glass.  A  variety  of  the 
sulphate  of  barytes  with  lapis  hepaticus,  accurately  de- 
scribed by  Cronsted  as  the  liberstein  or  liverstone  of  the 
Germans  and  Swedes,  has  also  been  forwarded  to  the 
Society  from  some  place.  This  mineral  almost  always  ac- 
companies the  best  metallic  ores  and  is  considered  by 
mineralogists  as  a  happy  presage  of  finding  them.  Ac- 
cording to  the  celebrated  Becher,  it  is  a  certain  indication 

46 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

aut  praesentis  aut  futuri  metalli.  It  is  hoped  that  the 
importance  of  mineral  substances  in  agriculture  and  manu- 
facturing will  induce  the  farmers  and  other  gentlemen 
in  the  United  States  to  attend  to  the  mineral  products 
of  their  fields  and  send  them  to  the  Chemical  Society  of 
Philadelphia,  where  they  will  be  accurately  analyzed,  free 
of  expense.  By  this  means  many  valuable  discoveries 
may  be  made  and  we  may  become  acquainted  with  the 
operations  of  nature  in  this  part  of  the  globe. 

(The  Medical  Repository,  Volume  III,  page  68,  1800). 

4.  Among  other  communications  lately  made  to  this 
association  (the  Chemical  Society  of  Philadelphia)  of  the 
votaries  of  Science  is  a  series  of  Geological  essays  by  Mr. 
George  Lee.     Though  we  have  not  yet  heard  that  the 
author  has  given  the  geology  or  mineralogy  of  any  part 
of  the  United  States  not  hitherto  described,  yet  we  learn 
that,  like  Mr.  Kerwan,  he  is  a  spirited  supporter  of  the 
neptunian  theory  of  the  earth  and  a  firm  believer  in  the 
mosaic  account  of  the  deluge  and  its  consequences. 

(The  Medical  Repository,  Volume  IV,  page  303,  1801). 

5.  The  Chemical  Society  of  Philadelphia  have  appro- 
priated $50.00  for  the  purpose  of  procuring  a  medal,  which 
is  to  be  presented  to  any  person  who  shall  produce  the 
best  specimen  of  clay  found  in  the  United  States  and  fitted 
for  the  manufacture  of  potter's  ware.     No  attention  will 
be  bestowed  on  clay  inferior  in  quality  to  that  from  which 
the  common  modern  queen's  ware  is  manufactured  or  on 
that  which  shall  have  been  found  in  such  a  situation  and 
quantity  as  that  it  may  be  obtained  and  manufactured 
with  convenience  and  profit.     Any  person,  who  shall  be 
acquainted  with  clay,  an  exhibition  of  which  may  entitle 
him  to  be  a  candidate  for  the  possession  of  the  medal,  is 
requested  to  deliver  a  specimen  of  such  clay  to  one  of  the 
corresponding  secretaries  of  the  Society  before  the  first 

47 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

day  of  January,  1804.  Together  with  any  specimens  of 
clay  sufficient  evidence  of  its  good  qualities  and  an  account 
of  the  place  and  quantity  in  which  it  may  be  found  must 
be  delivered  and  every  communication  on  this  subject 
must  be  accompanied  by  a  sealed  note,  containing  the 
name  and  residence  of  the  author.  The  medal  will  be 
adjudicated  soon  after  the  day  above  mentioned.  The 
corresponding  secretaries  of  the  Chemical  Society  for  the 
present  year  are  Dr.  John  C.  Otto,  Mr.  John  Y.  Bryant 
and  the  undersigned. 

By  order  of  the  Society, 

R.  HARE,  JR. 

Philadelphia,  February  4th,  1802. 

(The  Medical  Repository,  Volume  V,  page  349,  1802). 

A  second  annual  address  before  this  pioneer  society  il- 
lustrates the  emphasis  laid  by  its  membership  upon  the 
importance  of  chemical  discovery: 


ANNUAL  ORATION 

DELIVERED   BEFORE   THE 

CHEMICAL,  SOCIETY 
OF  PHILADELPHIA, 

January  31st,  1801. 


BY  FELIX  PASCALIS,  M.D. 

VICE  PRESIDENT  OP  THE  SOCIETY 


Published  by  Order  of  the  Society. 


Nous  avons  Tayantage  de  voir  enfin, 
les  plus  beaux  jours  de  la  Chimie. — 

MACQUER. 


PHILADELPHIA: 

Printed  by  John  Bioren,  No.  88, 
Chestnut  Street 


1802. 


ANNUAL  ORATION,  ETC. 

GENTLEMEN  OF  THE  CHEMICAL  SOCIETY, 

I  come,  this  day,  to  fulfil  the  honourable  task  of  address- 
ing your  society  on  subjects  relative  to  Chemistry. 

Permit  me,  at  first,  to  congratulate  you  on  the  return  of 
another  year  to  be  added  to  your  commendable  exertions 
for  the  improvement  of  a  science  which  constitutes  true 
philosophy,  and  imparts  so  many  advantages  to  enlightened 
and  polite  nations. 

Of  these  none  have  remained  unknown  to  you,  for,  as 
soon  as  this  institution  was  formed,  by  the  talents  and 
diligence  of  its  members,  it  stood  adequate  to  the  experi- 
mental researches  pursued  by  the  celebrated  schools  of 
Europe.  Less  censurable  than  those  venerable  seminaries 
of  learning  which  have  spent  so  many  years  in  false 
theories,  in  idle  and  useless  systems,  you  have  had  the 
satisfaction  of  participating  with  them  in  their  discoveries 
as  early  as  your  members  could  controvert,  with  the 
learned  of  all  the  world,  any  of  the  subjects  or  causes 
of  the  revolution  that  that  science  has  experienced,  within 
these  few  years.  By  whatever  consideration  personal  praise 
could  be  waived,  in  your  assembled  Body,  no  doubt,  it 
remains  deserved  by  those  who  early  promoted  the  sedulous 
cultivation  of  the  most  useful  science.  I  subscribed  to 
this  laudable  intention  when  I  had  the  honour  of  being 
called  as  a  member  in  your  institution.  But  I  scarcely 
can  confide  in  myself  this  day,  when,  by  your  appointment, 
I  am  to  display  some  of  the  admirable  laws  and  numerous 
advantages  of  Chemistry.  Was  I  adequate  to  the  task  I 
would  publicly  declare  that  I  became  so  among  you,  and 
after  many  years  of  our  scientifical  intercourse. 

Necessity  was  the  parent  of  our  science  in  the  most 

51 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

distant  ages  that  historical  records  can  trace ;  from  avarice 
and  cupidity  it  afterwards  received  some  slow  and  obscure 
improvements,  but  accurate  analysis  only  has  lately 
brought  it  to  perfection.  The  ancient  history  of  Chemistry 
offers  such  a  lamentable  view  of  ignorance,  superstition, 
and  empiricism  that  its  pages  seem  no  more  useful  but 
to  prove  how  laborious,  slow,  and  uncertain  is  the  advance- 
ment of  human  understanding,  unless  it  is  aided  by  the 
correct  results  of  observation  and  by  an  unprejudiced 
love  of  truth.  Happy  is  our  age,  in  which,  at  last,  we  are 
acquainted  with  the  elementary  laws  of  existing  bodies! 
Those  laws  which  extend  to  all  material  objects,  visible 
or  invisible,  known  or  still  concealed  from  our  observa- 
tion; those  laws,  the  limits  of  which  we  do  not  know,  be- 
cause we  cannot  trace  where  the  limits  of  nature  are  to 
be  marked;  those  laws  form  and  constitute  the  science  of 
Chemistry;  indeed,  by  its  principles  it  is  connected  with 
all  the  branches  of  natural  philosophy,  and  by  its  compara- 
tive results  it  dictates  the  rules  of  arts  and  the  processes 
of  manufactories.  Under  this  twofold  view  Chemistry, 
embracing  all  wants  and  comforts  of  mankind,  is  now 
to  be  contemplated  as  the  most  important  and  interesting 
subject,  altogether  to  do  honour  to  your  pursuits  in  its 
study,  and  to  encourage  many  more  votaries  to  the  acquisi- 
tion of  its  numerous  advantages. 

Philosophy.  You  know,  Gentlemen,  how  numerous  are 
the  branches  of  universal  Philosophy!  They  form  like  a 
beautiful  tree,  which  often  has  been  drawn  by  the  hand 
of  genius;  under  its  shade  all  sages  vied  to  find  shelter 
or  repose,  and  of  its  fruits  they  all  wished  to  partake. 
When  all  these  branches  have  been  severally  examined 
and  studied  they  appear  so  well  connected,  and  so  much 
depending  on  the  same  laws,  that  they  compose  but  one 
science,  the  mysteries  of  which  cannot  be  disclosed,  unless 
we  enter  into  the  laboratory  of  the  chemist,  and  there  we 
explore  its  processes.  From  these,  all  sciences  in  the 

52 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

physical  order  must  receive  their  tenets  and  elementary 
doctrines. 

Astronomy.  Would  the  Astronomer  refuse  to  witness 
our  invariable  results  of  attraction  and  gravity  because 
we  cannot  explain  their  operations,  as  he  does  for  the  roll- 
ing sun  and  planets  by  the  direct  ratio  of  masses  and  by 
the  inverse  ratio  of  the  square  of  distances:  we  must  then 
propose  some  difficulties  arising  from  the  known  characters 
of  Caloric.  That  this  element  is  not  ponderous  and  has  no 
gravity  to  any  given  center  of  density,  that  no  law  but 
that  of  a  projectile  power  can  be  attributed  to  it,  is  be- 
yond doubt.  How  is  it,  then,  that  all  the  bodies  of  the 
planetary  system,  the  greatest  number  of  which  are  solar 
or  ignited,  could  equally  obey  the  same  law  of  the  direct 
ratio  of  masses  and  of  the  inverse  ratio  of  the  square  of 
distances?  Newton  had  calculated  that  the  comet  of  the 
8th  of  December,  1680,  when  in  its  perihelium  had  re- 
ceived a  heat  2,000  times  greater  than  that  of  red  hot 
iron.  What  matter,  we  ask,  can  be  conceived  to  exist,  as  a 
center  of  gravity,  at  a  still  more  and  infinitely  higher  de- 
gree of  heat?  The  known  laws  of  nature  leave  no  room 
to  any  conjecture,  except  to  that  of  an  elementary  and 
homogeneous  fire,  which  cannot  exert  but  an  immense  pro- 
jectile power,  that,  of  course,  it  excludes  entirely  any 
share  of  attraction  by  the  direct  ratio  of  masses  and  the 
inverse  ratio  of  the  square  ratio  of  distances.  A  con- 
clusion more  than  probable  is  therefore  to  be  drawn  that 
to  chemistry  is,  perhaps,  reserved  to  disclose  a  different 
order  of  the  primary  laws  of  the  universe. 

Caloric.  In  this,  as  well  as  in  other  investigations,  the 
philosopher  must  be  aided  by  the  results  of  experimental 
chemistry.  Any  proportion,  for  instance,  of  the  attributes 
of  matter — is  it  well  understood,  unless  the  laws  of  Ca- 
loric are  correctly  defined  ?  Caloric !  astonishing  principle 
of  destruction  and  life!  To  describe  well  its  activity  and 
operations  it  would  be  necessary  to  advert  to  mountains 

53 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

which  it  undermines,  to  the  frightful  craters  it  opens  on 
their  most  elevated  regions,  and  to  the  immense  torrents 
of  lava  with  which  it  inundates  afterwards  cities  and  em- 
pires. We  might  thence  follow  its  burning  streams  into 
the  abyss  from  whence  it  again  breaks  open  its  barriers, 
lifting  mountains,  raising  islands,  or,  if  at  liberty,  uniting 
to  water,  boiling  up  in  the  shape  of  whirlwinds  or  clouds 
which  darken  the  firmament.  This  indestructible  agent 
then  divides  itself  in  various  scintillating  meteors,  or  by 
its  sudden  combination  with  air,  forms  the  lightning,  and 
by  tremendous  electrical  detonations,  spreads  terror  and 
devastation  among  mankind,  threatens  nature  with  the 
perturbation  of  all  established  order.  However,  you  may 
master  Caloric,  Gentlemen,  you  may  attract  it  from  the 
regions  above  under  your  lens  and  concentrate  it  in  your 
crucibles,  where,  to  your  command,  it  will  melt  or  volatilize 
the  hardest  metals,  reduce  rocks  to  the  elasticity  of  clay, 
and  clay  itself  to  the  adamantine  hardness;  where  it  will 
be  disposed  by  your  processes  into  fixed  and  opaque  sub- 
stances to  arrange  their  pores  for  an  easy  passage  of  the 
light!  With  you  it  will  create,  as  it  were,  aerial  and  in- 
visible bodies  among  all  the  known  substances  you  can 
enumerate  and  those  that  can  be  suspended  in  a  gaseous 
state.  After  such  comparative  results  philosophers  may 
explain  elementary  laws  concerning  the  attributes  of  mat- 
ter; they  are  able  to  explain,  likewise,  the  revolutions  of 
seasons  and  the  phenomena  of  the  atmosphere.  With  the 
capillary  tubes  of  observation  they  may  measure  spaces, 
density  of  air,  and  gravity  of  fluids.  How  often  scholastic 
philosophy  blundered  on  those  simple  subjects  when  chem- 
istry had  not  yet  controlled  all  other  sciences!  The  first 
who  measured  the  parabola  of  a  bullet  launched  into  the 
air  by  the  thundering  explosion  of  a  cannon  attributed  the 
almost  incandescent  heat  of  the  metallic  globe  to  the  det- 
onating mixture,  because  to  chemistry  only  it  belonged  to 
demonstrate  the  power  of  friction  in  disengaging  heat 

54 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

from  its  latent  recesses.  Other  erroneous  doctrines  on  that 
noble  agent  of  nature  which  so  often  has  been  mistaken 
for  a  modification  or  produce  of  matter  have  been  ex- 
ploded! The  supreme  laws  of  the  existence  and  diffusion 
of  Caloric  in  nature  are  its  necessary  tendency  to  equilib- 
rium with  external  temperature,  and  its  power  of  over- 
coming the  cohesion  of  particles  to  satisfy  its  affinity  with 
them.  But  let  us  not  pass  over  that  other  phenomenon  of 
affinity  unnoticed.  Without  the  knowledge  of  its  laws 
philosophy  would  be  mute  at  the  view  of  the  stupendous 
works  of  nature,  or  she  would  be  obliged  to  conceive  as 
many  deities  as  there  are  prodigies  in  the  creation. 

Affinity.  This  is  the  great  power  which  arranges,  unites, 
and  hardens  homogeneous  particles  of  matter  and  exerts 
itself  likewise  with  due  proportion  upon  heterogeneous 
substances.  Under  the  heavy  foundation  of  mountains, 
in  the  deepest  subterraneous  cavities  of  the  earth,  in  the 
bottom  of  the  seas,  no  where  it  finds  obstacles  sufficient  to 
oppose  its  operation,  except  Caloric  accumulated  could 
suspend  their  effects  to  a  certain  degree.  Yet  distance  can 
truly  impair  or  weaken  the  power  of  affinity;  approxima- 
tion, of  course,  will  augment  it.  In  itself  it  is  composed 
of  many  tendencies,  but  these  remain  incommensurable. 
Their  insulated  effect  is  nil,  and,  as  soon  as  they  are  simul- 
taneous, they  become  effectual.  In  fine,  affinity,  which  is 
attraction,  adhesion,  cohesion,  and  aggregation,  by  the  im- 
mediate result  of  elective  power  is  the  primary  cause  of 
dissolution  and  decomposition.  Now  let  the  philosopher 
listen  to  the  laws  of  affinity,  and  the  minutest  circum- 
stances will  be  explained,  from  the  spheric  form  of  a  bubble 
of  air,  or  of  a  drop  of  water,  to  the  various  degrees  of  eleva- 
tion of  fluid  in  capillary  tubes,  or  to  their  pressure  by  the 
same,  both  effected  in  inverse  ratio  of  the  squares  of 
diameters.  To  these  we  may  add  the  phenomenon  of  blaze 
in  ignited  bodies,  the  mechanism  of  breathing  and  renew- 
ing animal  heat  by  the  decomposition  of  common  air,  but, 

55 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

more  especially,  the  effects  of  the  refraction  of  light.  The 
philosopher  may,  no  doubt,  well  explain  how  the  density 
of  the  rays  of  light  is  like  the  square  of  the  distance  from 
its  focus ;  how  it  is  transmitted  to  the  retina ;  in  what  angle 
it  is  reflected  and  at  last  refracted.  To  these  elementary 
laws  of  optics — catoptricks  and  dioptricks — the  chemist 
adds  a  question,  ready  to  answer  it :  What  is  light  ? 

Light.  Light,  which  adorns  the  whole  creation  by  an 
infinite  variety  of  colours,  because  each  colour  is  light 
presented  in  a  different  angle  of  refraction  or  refrangi- 
bility;  light  is  the  element  of  all  the  worlds,  of  innumer- 
able solar  systems  and  comets;  light  and  caloric  are  as 
often  united  as  vital  air  and  Azote  are  aggregated  to  form 
the  atmospheric  orbit  of  the  earth;  yet,  caloric  may  be 
present  without  light,  and  vice  versa :  light  ranks  the  first 
among  the  elements  of  nature  by  its  tenuity  and  elasticity, 
for,  more  rapidly  than  any  other,  it  can  traverse  the  im- 
mensity of  spaces.  It  cannot  be  said  to  be  like  a  modifica- 
tion of  a  diffused  subtile  matter,  because  we  trace  sub- 
stances, with  which  it  has  an  elective  affinity ;  it  stimulates 
animated  bodies,  and  to  vegetables,  it  is  as  a  last  component 
part  necessary  to  develope  their  succulent  juices,  their 
splendid  flowers,  their  robust  fibres,  and  their  luxuriant 
colours.  No  paradoxical  doctrine  will  ever  be  able  to  erase 
from  the  books  of  Philosophy  such  truths  inscribed  in  it, 
by  the  hand  of  the  chemist. 

Atmosphere.  Behold !  another  field  is  open ;  but  to  the 
most  ingenuous  philosopher  it  will  appear  a  dreary  soli- 
tude, an  immense  desert,  until  Chemistry  discovers  in  it, 
all  the  elements  of  the  productions  of  nature.  Air,  that 
invisible  fluid,  but  so  sensibly  perceived  by  our  organs, 
has  long  been  the  object  of  innumerable  investigations, 
yet  in  our  days  only,  they  have  been  successful.  The 
learned  among  the  ancients,  filled  up  their  atmosphere 
with  their  Genii,  to  explain  contrary  effects  of  that  in- 
visible orbit;  and  among  moderns,  it  has  long  been  a  de- 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

sideratum  to  account  for  an  element  which  appeared 
necessary  to  fertilize  the  fields,  and  to  nourish  life,  while 
it  was  dreaded  as  the  destroyer  of  agricultural  labour,  or 
the  vehicle  of  contagion  and  death  among  mankind.  The 
attributes  of  its  particles  were  still  more  incomprehensible, 
when  it  was  considered  that  with  a  rapidity  to  be  com- 
puted only  by  the  imagination  it  could  transmit  light  and 
sound,  although  they  would  be  agitated  in  a  thousand 
contrary  directions.  The  pressure  which  it  exercises  round 
the  globe,  to  the  center  of  which  it  gravitates,  was,  at 
first,  discovered  by  Torricelly,  who  traced  to  what  height 
a  column  of  fluid  could  be  equal  by  its  weight  to  the  supe- 
rior pressing  column.  More  of  its  comparative  gravity 
with  other  fluids  was  still  better  defined,  when  Monge 
declared  that,  if  the  whole  atmosphere  could  disappear, 
all  the  liquids  on  earth  would  suddenly  rise,  be  converted 
into  vapour,  and  form  another  atmosphere;  but  all  these 
progressive  views  scarcely  unveiled  one  corner  of  a  more 
extended  view  of  the  laws  of  nature.  The  chemist  attempted 
the  analysis  and  synthesis  of  atmospheric  air,  and  it  was 
performed;  moreover,  he  found  out,  and  demonstrated, 
that  its  component  parts  could  be  equally  concrete  and 
fixed  in  organic  bodies,  or  combined  with  other  various 
solid  substances;  it  has  then  been  proclaimed  that  the 
Oxygen  and  Azote  constituting  common  air  were  noth- 
ing but  another  modification  of  matter  itself,  and  a  con- 
tinuation of  the  chain  of  existing  bodies.  It  was  no  more 
problematic  afterwards,  to  ascertain  how  this  fluid  ad- 
ministered life  to  us,  as  often  as  there  are  instants  during 
which  we  are  allowed  to  exist,  or  how  it  effected  the  most 
principal  changes  and  modifications  in  the  animated  or 
inanimated  creation.  The  pneumatic  observer  could  soon 
disengage  the  component  parts  of  atmospheric  air,  from 
common  materials,  and  imitate  a  new  creation.  Let  honour 
be  given  to  the  memory  of  the  great  Newton;  he  was  the 
first  who  predicted  the  prodigies  of  our  laboratories :  * '  Si 

57 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

se  tangerent,"  said  he,  "particulae  aeris — aer  evaderet  in 
marmor, ' '  *  but  without  the  science  of  Chemistry,  that 
oracle  could  never  be  explained,  and  philosophy  could  not 
advocate  as  a  true  proposition,  that  the  atmosphere  is  the 
last  reservoir  where  the  elements  of  all  bodies  are  ulti- 
mately received,  and  from  where  again  they  are  sub- 
tracted to  create  bodies  and  to  support  organic  life :  there 
is  demonstrated  another  axiom  long  ago  proclaimed  by 
Lucretius,  "nothing  is  annihilated  in  nature."  As  soon  as 
she  has  effected  a  dissolution,  she  exhibits  in  her  very 
bosom  the  consoling  power  of  a  new  creation ! 

But  from  the  elevated  regions  of  Heaven,  and  from  all 
the  primary  elements  and  phenomena  of  the  world,  the 
mysteries  of  which  have  been  disclosed  by  Chemistry,  let 
us  more  minutely  fix  our  attention  on  the  surface  of  our 
globe.  A  more  admirable  view  of  the  analysis  and  com- 
binations of  all  existing  bodies;  their  formation,  growth, 
alteration  and  destruction,  their  treasures  and  deleterious 
qualities,  every  thing  will  be  unveiled  by  our  processes. 
More  evidently  we  will  then  enumerate  the  infinite  im- 
provements which  are  applied  to  arts  and  manufacture  by 
mineral,  animal,  and  vegetable  Chemistry. 

Mineralogy.  You  are  fully  acquainted,  gentlemen,  with 
the  difficulties  and  confusion  which  attended  the  science 
of  mineralogy,  when  laborious  researches  and  observations 
were  transmitted  through  external  and  erroneous  charac- 
ters. Some  such  as  Gellert  and  Wallerius  could  not  dis- 
tinguish any  thing  else  but  vitrescible  matters,  or  argil- 
laceous or  apyres,  or  alkalines  and  calcarious :  others  would 
prefer  the  general  division  of  earths,  sands,  and  stones. 
Some  simply  divided  minerals  into  earths,  salts,  combusti- 
ble and  metallic  substances.  As  late  as  the  year  1784,  the 
famous  Daubenton  took  another  erroneous  classification, 
consisting  of  negative  characters,  of  insoluble,  incombusti- 
ble, metallic,  then  transparent,  and  crystallized,  smooth, 

*  Tract,  de  nat.  acid. 

58 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

&c.  Now  we  may  observe,  that  these  descriptive  methods 
could  not  add  the  least  improvement  to  science,  and  that 
they  contributed  to  many  erroneous  assertions.  It  is  not, 
for  instance,  by  the  presence  of  a  metal  that  the  ponderous 
spar  is  to  be  judged,  since  its  basis  is  a  primitive  earth, 
and  if  this  is  a  Tungstat  of  lime,  or  if  the  Wolfram  itself 
(which  is  thought,  by  many,  another  kind  of  primitive 
earth)  is  nothing  but  an  ore  of  Tungstein,  we  are  to  be 
determined  in  these  various  opinions  by  accurate  analysis 
only,  and  in  no  ways  by  external  characters.  Were  these 
to  fix  our  mineralogical  definitions,  by  what  given  habi- 
tudes would  we  be  justified  to  class  the  beautiful  fluoric 
spars  of  Derbyshire,  or  fluat  of  lime,  among  insoluble  neu- 
tral salts?  Error  would  be  still  more  egregious  and  un- 
avoidable between  the  Sulphures  or  Molybdena  and  the 
Carbures  of  iron,  which  are  so  absolutely  resembling  each 
other.  It  has  been  found  that  a  Borate  of  lime  may 
spark  and  scintillate  as  well  as  quartzose  substances;  that 
metallic  carbonates  must  effervesce  with  acids,  in  short, 
there  is  not  one  descriptive  method,  but  it  will  in  many 
points  lead  us  to  contradictory  facts.  So  sensibly  was 
Daubenton  convinced  of  their  deficiencies,  that  he  ex- 
pressed his  wishes  for  a  method  founded  on  analysis  of 
constituent  principles.  Fourcroy  begun  it  in  1780,  but 
the  Scyagraphy  of  Bergman  still  better  demonstrated  the 
superiority  of  the  method  of  constituent  principles.  This 
doctrine  was  embraced  by  Monge,  who  retained  external 
character  for  varieties  only ;  by  Kirwan  of  England,  Wer- 
ner, Dezbern,  Cronstedt  and  Chaptal;  thus  the  science  of 
Mineralogy  was  forever  added  to  the  dominion  of  Chem- 
istry. 

With  this  conquest,  we  will  not  however  consider  it  as 
the  chief  point  in  Chemistry,  to  form  theories  on  the 
primitive  state  of  the  earth,  to  explore  the  ruins  of  ex- 
tinguished volcanoes,  nor  the  most  antique  works  of  nature, 
from  the  grotto  of  Fingal  to  that  of  Antiparos.  We  will 

59 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

not  indulge  to  the  idle  curiosity  of  enumerating  the  causes 
of  the  granitic  ridges  of  mountains  and  of  the  calcareous 
secondary  ones;  we  may  dispense  with  contemplating 
whether  the  ocean  has  once  been  an  atmospheric  orbit, 
during  the  original  conflagration  of  the  Earth,  or  how, 
after  its  condensation  it  insensibly  retired  from  the  polary 
regions,  and  elevated  plains  of  Tartary,  to  its  Pacific 
and  Atlantic  bed,  leaving  everywhere  immense  masses  of 
animal  and  vegetable  productions.  However  useful  to 
science,  these  mineralogical  essays  and  deductions  would 
be,  with  more  real  advantage,  the  chemist  will  be  contented 
to  analyze  mineral  substances,  and  to  procure  those  which 
satisfy  our  wants,  constitute  our  wealth,  augment  our 
comforts,  which  enriches  our  arts,  and  manufactures. 

Nitre.  Among  these,  Nitre  may  justly  occupy  the  first 
rank.  Any  thing  relative  to  the  production  of  that  pre- 
cious saline  matter  is  interesting  as  much  to  save  expensive 
importations,  as  to  perfect  manufacturing  processes.  Let 
me  remind  you  of  that  awful  period  of  the  French  revolu- 
tion, when  the  fate  of  30  millions  of  people,  divided,  con- 
fused and  famished,  ruined  and  surrounded  by  sea  and 
land,  seemed  to  depend  on  a  sudden  formation  of  saltpetre, 
that  only  means  of  defence,  which  was  exhausted.  Various 
ingenious  ways  were  devised  by  the  learned, — saltpetre  was 
formed, — and  the  tyrant 's  phalanx  being  dispersed,  Liberty 
was  triumphantly  obtained,  thanks  to  analytic  science. 
To  all  the  known  processes  which  may  procure  Nitre  either 
from  artificial  beds,  or  lixiviation  of  certain  substances, 
we  now  may  add  that  of  the  decomposition  of  common 
metallic  oxyds,  and  of  ammoniac ;  but  the  most  surprising, 
if  further  experiments  could  evince  its  efficacy,  would  be 
that  of  procuring  the  formation  of  nitric  acid  by  an  only 
tenfold  compressibility  of  the  aggregate  Oxygen  and 
Azote  composing  atmospheric  air.  Various  attempts  with 
ingenious  apparatuses  promise  great  success,  and  if  Citizen 
Guyton  is  not  disappointed  in  his  expectation,  with  grati- 

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CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

tude,  Chemistry  will  receive  from  him  the  power  of  ac- 
celerating the  operations  of  Nature. 

Oxygenated  Muriat  of  Potash.  It  was  during  that  la- 
mentable period  when  the  friends  of  Liberty  were,  with 
importunity,  compelling  nature  to  supply  them  with  some 
new  means  of  defence  against  their  foes  that  the  dis- 
covery of  Berthollet,  on  the  tremendous  fulmination  of 
Oxygenated  Muriat  of  Potash  was  again  resumed. — In  this 
age  of  reason  and  benevolence,  let  us  never  boast  of  in- 
creasing the  power  of  destruction,  since  the  prevailing 
Philanthropy  exerts  itself  against  any  system  of  warfare. 
We  only  remark,  therefore,  that  from  various  habitudes 
of  the  Ift/per-oxygenated  Muriat  of  Potash,  the  most  sur- 
prising effects  are  to  be  reckoned  among  the  laws  of  nature. 
If  you  take  about  20  Centigrammes,  or  3  grs.  of  that  saline 
matter,  with  one  third  of  pulverized  Sulphur,  you  may 
by  a  slight  trituration,  produce  several  detached  detona- 
tions :  but  wrap  up  the  mixture  with  paper,  put  it  between 
an  anvil  and  a  hammer,  strike  a  blow  and  the  detonation 
will  be  equal  to  that  of  a  cannon,  surrounding  you  with 
a  purple  blaze,  and  white  smoke. — With  several  other  mix- 
tures of  that  salt,  shock  or  percussion  will  equally  oper- 
ate with  the  most  tremendous  power.  This  mechanical 
effect  is  therefore  equal  to  that  of  caloric,  or  of  fire  com- 
municated from  one  body  to  another.  This  singular  phe- 
nomenon had  been  witnessed,  although  in  a  very  small  de- 
gree, in  the  gun  powder,  but  it  had  not  been  attended,  in 
this  point  of  violence,  that,  by  compression,  the  particles 
of  Oxygen  could  unite  to  those  of  inflammable  bodies,  and 
form  an  abundant  gazeous  fluid  to  which  a  great  quantity 
of  caloric,  gives  such  electricity  as  to  strike  on  the  air  with 
an  unparalleled  violence. 

Under  the  unremitting  exertions  of  chemists,  Mineralogi- 
cal  enquiries  have  developed  as  many  curious  facts  as 
there  were  improvements  to  be  added  to  all  known  proc- 
esses, for  obtaining  muriatic  acid,  for  cheaply  crystallizing 

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CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

the  sea  salt,  for  extracting  the  soda,  for  preparing  the 
muriat  of  ammoniac,  for  purifying  all  combustible  min- 
erals that  can  be  converted  to  our  use,  for  preparing 
metals,  and  converting  them  to  the  most  useful  purposes, 
for  adding  new  ones  to  the  treasures  we  were  already  pos- 
sessed of;  but  one  of  the  discoveries  of  the  latter  kind  is 
too  remarkable  not  to  be  fully  detailed  here. 

Cast  Steel.  Long  before  the  Phlogiston  of  Stahl  had 
been  exploded  by  the  new  analysis,  and  in  spite  of  all  the 
beautiful  experiments  of  Bergman  and  Priestley,  nothing 
very  certain  was  known  on  the  fabrication  of  various  sorts 
of  steel.  Not  longer  than  twelve  years  ago,  it  was  dis- 
covered at  last  that  carbone  only,  in  due  proportion,  would 
constitute  various  sorts  of  fused  iron,  and  of  steel:  But 
the  English,  who  had  been  long  in  possession  of  a  more 
perfect  kind  of  cast  steel,  could  not  in  the  least  be  dis- 
turbed by  the  repeated  researches  of  Vandermonde,  Monge 
and  Berthollet.  The  latter  had  ever  declared  that  he 
was  at  a  loss  to  account  for  the  character  of  that  precious 
metal.  But  a  mystery  which  had  been  perhaps  fortu- 
itously discovered,  which  avarice  and  cupidity  had  so  long 
concealed,  was  at  last  disclosed  by  the  ingenious  Citizen 
Clouet  and  made  public  with  a  liberality  which  altogether 
honours  science  and  the  National  character.  The  whole 
secret  was  I  believe,  found  out  by  analogy;  as  different 
quantities  of  fused  iron  and  steel  were  known  to  be  the 
result  of  various  proportions  of  Carbone  and  of  few  vi- 
trescible  substances  of  the  original  ore.  It  was  therefore 
concluded  that  a  more  intimate  union  of  that  element,  and 
of  the  purest  clay,  with  the  best  iron,  effected  sponta- 
neously at  a  due  degree  of  heat,  could  form  the  famous 
English  cast  steel.  Liberal  private  means,  and  even  na- 
tional expenditures  have  been  largely  and  sedulously  ap- 
plied to  numerous  experiments,  at  the  wind  furnace  of 
Macquer,  to  the  150th  degree  of  Wedgwood's  Pyrometer. 
The  results,  gentlemen,  have  magnificently  equaled  the 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

most  admired  steel  of  Huntsman  and  Marshall.  The  new 
theory  of  our  chemistry  has  besides  acquired  another  illus- 
tration of  the  elective  affinities  of  iron,  for  Carbone,  since 
the  Carbonate  of  lime,  or  marble  in  dust  has  been  offered 
to  it.  The  fixed  air  has  been  decomposed,  and  the  results 
have  been  equally  successful.  So  much  for  the  wonderful 
secret  of  the  cast  steel  of  Sheffield,  Yorkshire. 

Alumine.  Before  I  terminate  this  article  of  mineral 
chemistry,  let  me  remind  you,  gentlemen,  of  the  great 
advantages  obtained  by  other  nations,  from  the  class  of 
alumines  only.  Among  the  compounds  in  which  that  prim- 
itive earth  is  predominating,  they  have  found  all  the  ma- 
terials from  the  common  tile  and  brick  to  the  most  ele- 
gant works  of  Porcelain.  Not  only  various  kinds  of  clay 
have  rendered  infinite  services  for  the  commodities  of  life, 
but  they  may  be  turned  into  the  best  instruments  of  arts 
and  utensils  of  manufactures  of  glass.  Some  clays  have 
been  found  likewise  to  be  good  manures,  and  others  are  an 
excellent  substitute  for  soap  in  the  Fuller 's  art. 

That  America  possesses  such  treasures,  it  is  needless  to 
prove,  and  that  they  have  not  yet  been  applied  to  the 
use  of  the  community,  it  is  also  an  object  of  regret.  Do, 
gentlemen,  let  a  liberal  patriotism  animate  your  scientifical 
pursuits,  among  you  who  are  to  see  the  glorious  days  of  the 
trans-Atlantic  Republic.  Encourage  and  repeat  mineral- 
ogical  experiments  on  all  kinds  oi  Alumine,  the  first  who 
will  successfully  procure  manufactured  works  of  the 
kind  and  tolerably  good  earthen  wares  will  deserve 
well  of  his  country  and  be  rewarded  by  the  gifts  of  for- 
tune. 

Vegetable  Chemistry.  By  offering  you  a  few  more  ob- 
servations on  Vegetable  chemistry,  I  hope  I  will  further 
illustrate  the  dominion  of  that  science  over  all  the  branches 
of  natural  Philosophy.  Indeed,  not  only  the  most  inter- 
esting materials  upon  which  we  operate  must  be  obtained 
from  vegetables  through  the  processes  of  combination, 

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CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

but  the  chemist  moreover  is  called  upon  to  explain  the 
phenomena  of  vegetation. 

Vegetable  analysis  has  offered  us  three  elements  only, 
in  vegetation :  Carbone,  Hydrogen,  and  Oxygen.  The  num- 
ber and  proportion  of  these  principles  will  afterwards  be 
sufficient  to  answer  any  question  on  different  other  re- 
sults of  vegetation. 

Observation  demonstrates  that  water  and  Carbone  are 
the  real  nutritive  principles  of  vegetation,  that  is  to  say: 
Hydrogen  and  Oxygen  are  afforded  to  them  by  the  de- 
composition of  water,  while  Carbone  is  procured  from  the 
decomposition  of  animal  and  vegetable  matter.  All  this 
is  confirmed  by  the  analysis  of  the  fibrous  part  of  plants 
which  are  a  mere  aggregate  of  Carbone.  But  in  what 
manner  is  Carbone  carried  into  all  the  parts  of  a  plant 
or  tree?  By  what  means  can  it  circulate  in  them?  by 
what  solvent  is  it  rendered  the  precious  food  of  vegetables  ? 
The  solution  of  all  these  problems,  gentlemen,  is  provided 
by  correct  and  incontrovertible  experiments. 

Pure  charcoal  such  as  it  is  left  in  our  hearths,  or  mixed 
with  any  kind  of  pure  and  dry  earth,  could  not  certainly 
be  spread  on  the  ground,  and  depended  on  as  the  best 
manure.  But  on  the  other  hand,  do  not  we  know  that  dead 
vegetables  (from  which  much  carbone  can  otherwise  be 
procured  by  combustion),  when  relaxed  or  softened  by 
maceration  and  putrefaction,  are  indeed  the  best  materials 
for  an  excellent  manure?  How  shall  we  account  then,  for 
the  striking  difference  of  pure  carbone  being  ineffectual 
for  vegetation,  and  of  compounds  of  carbone  becoming  so 
evidently  necessary  to  it?  why,  in  the  latter  case,  that  ele- 
ment is  truly  held  in  solution,  by  oily,  extractive,  alkaline 
and  resinous  vehicles.  Now  water,  which  has  the  faculty 
to  dilute  those  natural  combinations,  becomes  itself  the 
solvent  which  carries  carbone  through  all  the  system  of 
vegetation,  and  by  which  nutrition  and  digestion  are  ac- 
complished. 

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CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

To  proceed  to  the  last  stage  of  formation  and  growth 
of  vegetables,  let  us  mention,  that  air,  and  perhaps  azote, 
caloric,  acids,  motion,  and  even  rest,  may  suffice  to  precipi- 
tate the  carbone.  These  other  eventual  agents  therefore, 
which  everywhere  are  found  active,  are  those  that  effect 
the  concretion  and  growth  of  any  fibrous  matter — these  are 
wholly  explaining  the  principles  and  mysteries  of  life  in 
vegetation,  because  they  support  and  animate  its  organs, 
distribute  the  nutritive  matter,  modify  the  action  of  per- 
turbating  causes,  preside  over  all  the  operations  of  that 
living  laboratory  of  nature,  just  as  the  Chemist  directs 
the  operations  of  his  own,  and  changes  the  results  by 
altering  the  form  or  number  of  his  reagents. 

These  general  principles  being  established  by  analysis 
and  synthesis,  who  can  deny  that  Chemistry  teaches  the 
natural  philosopher,  how  in  the  system  of  Nature,  primary 
substances  can  be  arranged  so  as  to  form  organized  bodies, 
.  .  .  and  from  thence,  obtain  such  attributes  with  which 
we  were  formerly  unacquainted,  active  attributes!  which 
we  never  dare  assign  to  matter !  But  if  nutrition,  growth, 
and  decomposition  of  plants,  are  explained  by  the  laws 
of  chemistry,  how  much  better  any  precepts  respecting  the 
choice  of  their  soil,  climate  and  temperature,  of  their  man- 
agement and  multiplication,  will  be  derived  from  the  same 
science?  not  only  agricultural  rules  are  connected  with 
Chemistry,  but  it  dictates  likewise  a  kind  of  vegetable 
Medicine,  which  has  its  institute  in  Agriculture,  of  Hy- 
giene, of  Clinics  and  of  Theurapeutics. 

Vegetables  as  objects  of  analysis  are  to  be  considered 
as  containing  substances  and  compounds  necessary  to 
our  pleasures  and  comforts,  to  arts  and  manufactures. 
Such  are  mucilages,  oils,  rosins,  fecula,  gluten,  Sugar, 
various  acids,  colouring  matter,  wood,  extractive  substance, 
the  Aroma,  and  the  Oxygenous  gas  which  all  vegetables 
emit  by  their  excretory  organs;  of  these  subjects  I  can 
now  notice  but  few. 

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CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

Nutritive  Principles  in  Vegetation.  It  was  very  difficult 
formerly  to  define  which  of  the  component  parts  of  vege- 
tables would  afford  a  wholesome  and  nutritive  food.  The 
mucilage  which  exists  in  them,  variously  elaborated  with 
acids,  gums  or  sugar,  has  been  at  last  pointed  out.  Analy- 
sis has  even  traced  that  food  in  the  abundant  and  pul- 
verulent fecula  which  constitutes  the  greatest  quantity  of 
substance  in  our  grains,  roots  and  seeds,  the  same  prin- 
ciple admirably  combined  or  deposited  in  different  organs 
of  plants  is  the  very  means  of  their  propagation,  growth, 
and  fructification.  In  whatever  plant  it  is  more  or  less 
abundant,  in  what  parts  it  can  be  more  or  less  concentrated, 
it  cannot  escape  the  analysing  investigation  of  the  chemist 
who  might  extract  a  wholesome  food  from  rejected  vege- 
tables and  insipid  roots. 

Other  treasures,  gentlemen,  are  discovered  by  the  leading 
method  of  analysis.  As  soon  as  oil,  that  precious  vegetable 
produce,  was  known  to  be  an  intimate  compound  of  Car- 
bone  and  Hydrogen,  as  soon  as  its  various  gelatinous 
states,  fixed  and  volatile,  were  ascertained  the  very  organs 
of  the  plants  in  which  it  is  abundant,  were  easily  detected. 
Hence  by  comparative  results  of  one  known  species  bear- 
ing resemblance  to  another,  by  the  shape,  taste,  analysis, 
of  their  pulps  and  seeds,  it  was  found  out  that  common 
bushes  spontaneously  growing,  might  supply  us  with  one 
of  the  most  indispensably  necessary  products,  at  least  for 
lamps  and  manufactures.  Such  are  the  Onopordum  Acan- 
thium,  and  the  Evonimus  Europceus. 

The  union  of  these  oils,  with  alkalies  to  form  soaps  is 
the  only  advantage  that  had  been  obtained,  but  that  they 
can  also,  through  various  processes,  combine  with  earths, 
acids  and  oxyds,  it  has  been  minutely  described,  compared 
and  experimented.  Pharmacy  has  therefore  already  ap- 
propriated those  processes  to  several  preparations  more 
useful  and  agreeable. — Poisonous  and  metallic  oxyds  the 
only  trituration  of  which  was  highly  dangerous,  have  been 

66 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

safely  elaborated  while  enchained  by  oil,  which  has  been 
afterwards  easily  removed;  the  art  of  painting  has  like- 
wise been  enriched  with  more  imperishable  colours.  Al- 
ready Citizen  Merime,  with  oil  and  Copper  has  splendidly 
ornamented  apartments  with  a  new  and  inimitable  Verd 
Antique. 

Acetite  and  Acetate  of  Copper.  Acetite  of  Lead.  On 
the  other  hand,  it  was  well  known  that  certain  vegetable 
acids  when  united  to  metallic  oxyds,  could  procure  precious 
materials  for  painting  and  dyeing.  But  the  simplest  and 
cheapest  processes  were  never  reduced  to  easy  principles 
that  could  correspond  with  mechanical  means  and  with  an 
useful  routine  among  poor  manufactories:  if  such  an  Im- 
provement has  been  obtained  from  chemistry,  it  must  be 
confessed,  that  it  imparts  its  treasures  even  to  the  industry 
of  the  ignorant,  and  does  not  permit  that  they  should  be 
monopolized  by  a  few  individuals. — It  had  been  a  branch 
of  commerce  and  considerable  revenue,  anciently  estab- 
lished among  the  people  of  large  districts  of  France,  to 
prepare  the  Acetite  and  the  Acetate  of  copper,  with  the 
acetite  of  lead.  They  could  not  certainly  make  a  more 
profitable  use  of  the  remaining  grounds  of  their  grapes, 
after  the  vinous  fermentation.  Their  mechanical  and  easy 
operations  were  always  the  same,  handed  down  without 
improvement  from  fathers  to  children,  until  they  were 
threatened  to  lose  their  annual  produce  by  the  concurrence 
of  the  Hollanders  wha  manufactured  and  introduced, 
much  purer  and  finer  Acetite  and  of  course  preferred, 
chiefly  for  paints.  The  chemists  of  France  immediately 
inquired  into  the  causes  of  the  inferiority  of  the  metallic 
oxyds;  they  found  it  put  in  the  great  quantity  of  extrac- 
tive principles  in  the  grounds  of  grapes,  and  in  several 
operations  of  the  processes  which  were  mechanically  ex- 
ecuted; they  devised  everything  accordingly;  they  traced 
to  the  poorest  and  most  ignorant,  the  way  of  simplifying 
their  work;  they  substituted  distilled  vinegar  in  some 

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CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

cases,  so  that  in  a  little  time  the  most  beautiful  oxyds  and 
crystals  were  obtained ;  the  danger  of  any  concurrence  was 
removed  among  thousands  and  thousands,  of  their  grateful 
countrymen. 

What  improvements  were  by  the  same  time  added  to 
the  tanneries  of  the  country,  under  the  philanthropic  and 
ingenious  exertions  of  Citizen  Seguin!  He  accurately 
demonstrated  the  theory  of  the  singular  effects  of  the 
tanning  principle  which  was  formerly  quite  undefined. 

This  is  the  Gallic  acid  which  dissolves  the  gelatinous 
matter,  and  precipitates  it  to  consolidation,  just  by  its 
various  degrees  of  concentration.  From  the  discovery  it 
was  concluded  that  the  art  of  dyeing  was  in  many  respects 
a  colouring  tannage  which  should  not  only  please  the  eye 
by  flattering  colours,  but  should  remove  even  the  solubility, 
or  the  corruptible  tendency  of  woolen  cloths.  This  ad- 
vantage has  been  already  experienced  in  the  hospitals  and 
armies.  If  the  tanning  principle  is  too  abundant  in  col- 
ours extracted  from  wood  so  as  to  oppose  their  beauty, 
it  is  vice- versa  concentrated  by  gelatinous  matter,  in  short 
the  quality  of  all  coloured  silks,  wools  and  cottons,  depends 
entirely  on  the  colouring  matters,  and  on  its  mordent.  I 
would  not,  gentlemen,  fatigue  your  attention  by  a  long 
series  of  other  precious  facts,  every  day  obtained  from 
Chemistry  in  objects  of  the  greatest  utility.  Let  it  be 
said  only  that  they  are  all  admirable  and  ingenious.  Such 
is  the  reduction  of  mordents  to  as  few  ingredients  as  pos- 
sible, for  the  preservation  of  Cloths,  just  by  previous  im- 
pregnation of  oil;  such  has  been  that  of  reddening  by 
acids,  the  blue  colouring  matter  of  the  Brazilian  Wood; 
that  of  dividing  two  colours  confused  in  one,  and  the 
beautiful  Yellow  and  Red  in  the  Carthamus  Tinctorious; 
that  of  employing  fermentation  to  destroy  the  extractive 
principle  that  contaminates  the  colours ;  that  in  every  case, 
of  counteracting  the  development  of  the  red  by  the  Al- 
kalis, and  the  incomparable  process,  in  fine,  introduced 

68 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

in  manufactories  of  Cloth,  by  Chaptal,  to  supply  the  Soap 
necessary  to  mill,  to  cleanse,  and  to  felt,  at  the  proportion 
of  48  pounds  for  100  of  cloths,  with  an  animal  soap  ob- 
tained by  the  decomposition  and  solution  in  Alkaline  lixiv- 
ium, of  all  woollen  rags,  and  worn  out  materials  that  are 
rejected  in  various  operations  in  manufactures  of  that 
kind.  It  is  necessary  to  add  that  no  inconveniency  in  this 
economical  process  has  been  discovered  which  has  not  been 
effectually  removed.  These  and  other  facts  are  very 
simple,  but  they  require  the  penetrating  attention  of  the 
Chemist,  to  be  referred  to  the  fundamental  elements  of 
the  science,  ever  before  they  are  applied  to  uses,  experi- 
ments, rules  of  art,  and  to  processes  of  manufactures. 

Animal  Chemistry.  Passing  through  a  great  number  of 
discoveries  and  useful  results,  for  which  we  are  indebted 
to  vegetable  chemistry,  I  come  to  the  last  part  of  our 
division,  that  of  animal  Chemistry. 

Medicine.  With  that  definition,  you  anticipate  me  in 
the  series  of  late  discoveries  and  extensive  improvements 
which  in  all  its  branches,  Medicine  has  received  from 
Chemistry.  That  science  which  directs  all  its  pursuits 
to  the  preservation  of  health  and  life,  to  the  relief  and 
cure  of  human  diseases,  had  been  reduced  during  many 
ages  (and  by  the  most  unaccountable  fatality)  to  absurd 
systems,  or  had  been  composed  in  its  institutes,  of  few 
good  precepts,  and  so  few  accurate  observations  that  it 
was  inadequate  to  the  wants,  or  little  entitled  to  the  con- 
fidence of  mankind.  About  the  beginning  of  the  last 
century,  however,  the  institutes  of  Medicine  appeared  to 
be  connected  with  as  many  of  the  physical  laws,  as  can  be 
applied  to  Physiology.  Yet  various  contradictory  systems 
continued  to  be  advocated,  without  much  retarding  the 
progress  of  that  science.  But  alas!  in  a  period  not  much 
remote  from  our  days,  it  has  been  again  confused  with 
metaphysical  entities  that  have  no  connection  at  all  with 
the  laws  of  nature,  and  which  as  attributes  of  animated 

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CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

matter  are  unintelligible,  erroneous  and  absurd.  At  last, 
in  imitation  of  chemistry,  the  spirit  of  analysis  has  pre- 
vailed in  all  the  branches  of  natural  philosophy,  and  con- 
sequently the  friends  of  the  healing  art,  who  wished  in- 
dependently and  usefully  to  pursue  the  career  of  their 
labour,  have  renounced  all  logical  systems,  and  composed 
their  institutes  of  medicine  of  such  facts  and  aphorisms 
of  the  ancient  and  modern,  that  experience  had  rendered 
incontrovertible  with  all  the  results  that  physical  laws  and 
analytic  animal  chemistry,  could  consistently  offer  to  their 
medical  investigation. 

But  here,  Gentlemen,  let  me  bear  evidence  against  the 
unrestrained  spirit  of  novelty  and  the  unphilosophical 
theories  which  of  late  have  been  mistaken  for  physiologi- 
cal and  Chemico-medical  improvements.  For  whatever  is 
handed  to  us  of  the  results  of  animal  chemistry  useful  to 
Medicine,  is  sufficient  to  recommend  the  connection  of  both 
sciences,  without  any  gratuitous,  singular  and  perhaps  false 
applications.  I  do  not  pretend  to  controvert  here  the 
supposed  discoveries  of  Girtanner,  of  Beddoes,  Davis  and 
others,  who  with  so  rapid  strides  through  the  scabrous  path 
of  science,  have  promised  to  themselves  and  the  public,  to 
open  a  new  Era,  and  to  dispel  from  among  mankind  all  the 
diseases  they  were  necessarily  subject  to.  There  are,  Gen- 
tlemen, enthusiasts  and  fanatics  among  Philosophers,  as 
well  as  among  devotees  and  sectaries.  Human  understand- 
ing and  science  may  likewise  be  degraded  by  assumed 
notions  and  fanciful  theories,  as  much  as  they  can  be  by 
the  effect  of  ignorance.  Indeed  those  Philosophers  of  Ger- 
many who  pretended  once  to  explain  the  case  of  a  child 
born  with  a  golden  tooth,  without  having  previously  as- 
certained the  evidence  of  the  fact,  were  no  less  ridiculous 
than  new  theorists  deserve  to  be  thought,  when  they  pre- 
tend to  explain  animal  irritability  by  Oxygenation,  and  to 
cure  diseases,  with  certain  gases,  without  having  in  the 
least  established  how  much  and  in  what  respect  the  at- 

70 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

tributes  of  animated  matter,  could  be  assimilated  to  any  of 
the  laws  of  elective  affinity,  nor  to  the  habitudes  of  the 
elementary  principles  in  nature.  No,  no,  the  Loco-motive 
power  of  life,  or  rather,  animal  irritability  has  nothing  in 
its  effects  that  can  be  connected  to  those  of  the  substances 
that  we  can  torture  by  chemical  processes.  The  simple 
contractibility  of  a  muscular  fibre,  or  the  active  secretion 
effected  in  the  cavity  of  a  viscus,  will  ever  baffle  our  en- 
quiries, and  all  the  vast  comparative  systems,  which  we 
would  derive  the  most  ingeniously,  from  the  laws,  habi- 
tudes and  combinations  of  the  existing  inanimated  bodies. 

Physiology.  But  if  theories  on  organized  and  animated 
matter,  or  physiological  causes  of  life  and  health,  and  on 
the  origin  of  diseases,  are  to  form  a  book  of  aphorisms 
perfectly  distinct  and  different  from  the  elements  of  Chem- 
istry, there  are  however,  certain  points  of  contact,  between 
the  functions  of  our  organs,  and  all  the  laws  of  nature,  in 
which,  much  good  has  been  done;  important  discoveries 
have  been  made  and  many  more  are  to  be  expected  in  medi- 
cal science,  from  Analysis  and  animal  Chemistry.  To  it, 
for  instance,  we  are  indebted  for  the  knowledge  of  that 
kind  of  combustion  of  atmospheric  air,  which  is  effected 
in  the  lungs,  of  the  Oxygenation  of  the  blood,  of  the  origin 
of  animal  heat,  and  of  interesting  conjectures,  supported 
by  experimental  observations  concerning  the  causes  and 
characters  of  malignant  fevers,  and  of  their  inflammatory 
or  anomalous  symptoms.  To  these  great  acquisitions  we 
must  add  the  Analysis  of  animal  solids  and  fluids,  the  com- 
ponent parts  of  which  have  been  admirably  enumerated, 
and  likewise  some  mysteries  of  their  growth,  distribution 
and  final  dissolution. 

Pathology.  Of  course,  new  Pathological  views  have 
been  judiciously  offered,  respecting  certain  visible  or  in- 
visible agents,  which  cause  perturbation  of  animal  life; 
among  them,  deleterious  gases,  by  their  operation  on  ani- 
mal irritability,  stimulant,  sedative  or  poisonous,  have 

71 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

really  disclosed  a  long  series  of  our  diseases.  Animal 
Acids,  chiefly,  and  other  primary  combinations  in  the 
blood,  in  the  bile,  in  the  bones,  in  earthy  concretions  and 
others  do  form,  Gentlemen,  the  most  precious  collection 
of  facts  and  observations,  that  ever  medical  science  could 
be  improved  with,  for  the  relief  and  cure  of  a  good  many 
diseases.  Let  me  mention  one  only,  to  prove  the  useful 
applications  of  chemistry  to  the  science  of  medicine. 

Phosphorus.  Phosphoric  acid,  obtained  from  human 
bones,  and  of  that  produced  by  the  deflagration  of  Phos- 
phorus, lately  induced  Vaucquelin  and  Fourcroy,  minutely 
to  investigate  the  habitudes  of  the  Animal  substance. 
Their  experiments  accurately  pursued  in  various  Analytic 
and  Synthetic  ways,  proved  beyond  any  doubt,  that  when 
100  parts  of  Phosphate  of  Lime,  were  treated  by  mineral 
acids,  any  of  these  however,  concentrated  could  not  precipi- 
tate but  24  parts  of  Lime,  and  that  of  the  76  remaining, 
17  only  escaped  as  pure  Phosphoric  acid,  while  59  parts 
of  acidulated  Phosphate  of  Lime  were  kept,  in  solu- 
tion in  the  Sulphuric,  or  Nitric,  or  Muriatic  acid.  But 
these  59  parts  being  again  decomposed  by  the  Oxalic  acid, 
or  more  cheaply  by  the  Nitrate  or  Acetite  of  Lead,  would 
afford  the  whole  proportion  of  Phosphoric  acid,  which 
with  the  above  portion  of  17,  effected  exactly  41  parts  of 
that  acid,  which  can  saturate  59  of  Lime  to  form  100  parts 
of  Phosphate  of  Lime.  Without  mentioning  here  the  rea- 
sons they  assigned  for  that  singular  order  of  combinations 
nor  the  incontrovertible  facts  by  which  it  is  demonstrated, 
I  come  to  the  conclusion.  Phosphoric  acid  has  then  the 
power  of  holding  in  solution  the  Phosphate  of  Lime,  and 
strange  to  say,  in  that  state  is  but  partly  attacked  by 
mineral  acids,  while  it  entirely  yields  to  tha  power  of  vege- 
table acids.  Therefore,  Phosphoric  acid,  must  be  powerful 
enough  to  soften,  decay  and  distort  the  bones;  and  to  its 
superabundant  presence  only,  such  disorders  in  those  solids 
must  be  ascribed.  Moreover,  if  by  any  cause  whatever, 

72 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

the  usual  secretion  of  Phosphoric  acid  effected  through 
urine,  is  interrupted,  the  consequences  will  necessarily  be 
injurious  to  the  very  support  of  our  frames,  by  attenuating 
the  Phosphate  of  lime  of  the  bones,  by  causing  it  to  deviate 
in  our  fluids,  or  in  membranous  parts,  where  it  will  accu- 
mulate, or  obstruct  and  torture  the  most  delicate  organs. 
Now,  such  is,  in  this  instance,  the  help  we  have  received 
from  Chemistry,  that  we  may  oppose  to  the  greatest  rav- 
ages in  animal  economy,  if  we  know  which  is  the  super- 
abundant principle  that  must  be  counteracted:  and  thus, 
in  an  infinite  number  of  other  cases,  Chemistry  teaches  the 
Physician,  on  what  necessary  combinations  animal  func- 
tions are  depending,  by  what  assemblage  of  substance, 
Providence  has  marked  the  order  of  succeeding  periods 
of  Life. — I  had  almost  said,  even  of  Death ;  because,  when 
that  other  modification  of  existence  takes  place — Chemis- 
try can  still  more  triumphantly  operate  on  that  remnant 
of  a  Divine  work,  disunite  all  its  aggregate  compounds, 
and  trace  their  particles  to  their  original  elements! 

Pharmacy.  This  is  not  all;  it  is  interesting  to  consider 
a  moment  with  what  simplicity  and  regularity,  Chemistry 
has  in  general,  composed  our  precepts  of  Theurapeuticks 
and  methods  of  Pharmacy.  How  long  and  how  often  the 
exhibition  of  remedies  has  been  confused  by  Empiricisms, 
embarrassed  by  ignorance  and  endangered  by  avarice! 
The  learned  of  all  ages  ever  lamented  the  almost  insep- 
arable evils  of  that  branch  of  the  healing  art,  but  their 
regrets  or  their  cares  were  ever  inadequate  to  the  accurate 
knowledge  of  the  virtual  properties  of  remedies,  and  of 
their  proper  classification.  Behold!  now  Chemistry  has 
swept  off  all  the  dregs  of  quackery  and  ignorance;  it  has 
detected  the  imposition  of  useless  compounds,  the  fallacy 
of  celebrated  nostrums,  and  has  exposed  the  danger,  or  the 
inutility  of  wondrous  specifics  which  had  been  handed 
down  by  a  credulous  or  fanatic  care,  as  the  most  power- 
ful agents  in  the  cure  of  diseases.  The  Revolution  in 

73 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

Science,  as  effectual  as  that  in  the  political  order,  has 
equally  silenced  every  kind  of  assuming  authority,  and  of 
fanatic  delusion.  The  universality  of  Analysis  among  all 
the  productions  and  bodies  in  nature,  has  traced,  all  laws, 
all  virtual  properties,  and  almost  all  possible  combinations. 
Away,  therefore,  with  the  vender  of  nostrums,  who  cannot 
rank  among  philosophers  and  chemists;  away  with  the 
physician  whose  incapacity  or  equivocal  qualifications 
could  have  been  formerly  usurped  under  the  garb  of 
Science,  and  of  literary  titles.  These,  and  all  propagators 
of  evil  and  errors,  cannot  stand  the  test  of  science,  because 
like  truth,  science  has  impressed  its  features  on  the  physiog- 
nomy of  its  votaries.  Science  is  possessed  of  its  own  lan- 
guage, and  that  of  chemistry,  which  has  substituted  its 
nomenclature  to  the  absurd  and  unmeaning  definitions  of 
the  old,  is  the  last  trait,  gentlemen,  which  distinguishes 
its  adepts  from  the  vulgar  or  unskilled,  as  much  as  it 
guards  its  discoveries  against  any  unfounded  innovation, 
and  exalts  its  supremacy,  among  philosophical  sciences,  by 
the  language  of  truth,  which  belongs  to  it  alone. 

Here  I  conclude,  Gentlemen,  an  imperfect  survey  of  the 
improvements  procured  by  Chemistry,  to  Philosophical 
Sciences,  Arts  and  Manufactures.  I  may,  very  justly 
say,  that  society  has  received  more  real  advantages  from  it, 
in  a  few  years,  than  during  all  the  preceding  ages  of 
ignorance,  or  of  imperfect  knowledge  of  the  Laws  of 
Nature.  I  could  not  advert  to  every  interesting  view  of 
that  Science,  within  the  short  space  of  time  I  have  fixed, 
and  perhaps,  fatigued  your  attention.*  With  regret  thus, 
I  have  almost  omitted  to  describe  its  flourishing  cultivation 

*  In  the  Philadelphia  Laboratories  new  experiments  have  been 
lately  instituted,  relative  to  the  tremendous  effects  of  the  fulminat- 
ing mercury.  The  galvanic  influence  also,  that  astonishing  phe- 
nomenon of  PERPETUAL  MOTION,  has  been  minutely  investigated  by 
Prof.  Woodhouse,  both  through  the  METALLIC  PILE  and  the  CHAIN  OP 
CUPS  OP  VOLTA. 

74 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

in  the  Universities  and  Colleges  of  this  great  Republic. 
The  splendid  talents  of  several  of  their  Professors,  have 
still  more  promoted  the  sedulous  emulation  and  the  dis- 
tinguished abilities  of  many  students,  in  their  numerous 
classes.  But  in  the  name  of  your  institution,  I  must  notice 
that  in  the  Professor  of  Chemistry  of  this  university,  our 
worthy  President,*  that  science  has  not  only  gained  a 
strenuous  vindicator  of  its  doctrines,  but  also  a  liberal  in- 
quirer after  truth,  an  elegant,  and  successful  experimenter. 
— You  remember  what  a  great  man  he  has  had  to  contend 
with;  Priestley  to  whom  our  science  is  so  much  indebted, 
and  whose  opinions  and  experiments  are  to  be  consulted, 
in  any  of  the  elementary  processes  of  our  Laboratories; 
Priestley,  who  commands  respect  in  his  Chemical  contro- 
versies, because,  as  long  as  some  mysteries  in  Nature  will 
perplex  the  Philosopher,  he  is  entitled  to  the  same  degree 
of  evidence,  which  he  has  exhibited  in  his  doctrines; 
Priestley,  the  persecuted  friend  of  Liberty,  of  Religion, 
and  the  model  of  all  social  and  private  virtues.  Honored 
is  our  Society  with  such  Members;  congratulated  is  the 
Republic,  with  such  Citizens,  and  happy  is  the  rising  gen- 
eration with  such  philanthropic  examples,  which  nave 
already  opened  to  you  the  Golden  Era  of  SCIENCE  and 

LIBERTY. 

*  James  Woodhouse. 


CHAPTER   IV 

rTIHE  preceding  lectures  demonstrate  the  aim  of  the 
-*•  Society.  It  is  not  too  much  to  claim  that  in  this 
new  country  very  great  efforts  were  being  made  to  pro- 
mote and  to  advance  chemical  thought. 

Woodhouse  (1770-1809),  pioneer  in  the  advocacy  of  the 
new  chemistry  and  in  the  fostering  of  the  science  in  the 
United  States,  was  a  native  of  Philadelphia  and  a  graduate 
of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  where  he  afterward 
taught  chemistry  with  credit  to  himself  and  his  fellows. 
He  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  to  demonstrate  the  superi- 
ority of  Lehigh  anthracite  coal  over  the  bituminous  coal 
of  Virginia  for  reliability  and  heating  power.  He  wrote 
extensively  and  was  the  translator  and  editor  of  a  number 
of  books  relating  to  the  science  of  chemistry,  among  which 
is  Chaptal's  "Chemistry,"  edited  with  copious  and  most 
interesting  notes.  A  "Chymical  Catechism"  was  the  last 
but  not  the  least  of  his  writings.  His  "Young  Chemist's 
Pocket  Companion"  is,  in  all  probability,  the  first  pub- 
lished guide  in  experimentation  for  chemical  students. 
The  title  page  and  two  pages  of  directions  are  here  intro- 
duced. 

Woodhouse,  as  mentioned,  was  deeply  interested  in  the 
establishment  of  the  anti-phlogiston  theory,  and  we  find 
that  numerous  contributions  of  Joseph  Priestley,  which 
appeared  in  the  ' '  Transactions  of  the  American  Philosophi- 

76 


JAMES  WOODHOUSE 


THE 


Young  Cherm/l's  Pocket  Companion  ; 

ED    WITH 

Moratory  ; 


CONNECTED    WITH 


CONTAINING 

PHILOSOPHICAL  APPARATUS, 

AND    A    GREAT   NUMBER.   O* 

CHEMICAL    AGENTS; 

WHICH   ANY  PERSON   MAY    PERFORM    AN    ENDLESS 
VARIETY    OP    AMUSING    AND    INSTRUCTING 

EXPERIMENTS; 


INTENDED   TO    PROMOTE    THE    CULTIVATION 
OF    THE    SCIENCE    OF    CHEMISTRY. 


BY  JAMES  WOODHOUSE,  M.D. 
Pnftswt  tf  Chemistry  in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania^  Csfc. 

At  frestnt  tvery  thing  that  is  not  atMrmnatcd  Chemistry t  if  but 
a  small  fart  of  a  syttem  of  natural  k»enolraige.. 
PRIESTLEY 


BV    7-   H.   OSWAID,     NO.    179,    SOUTH 
SECOND-STREET. 


I797- 


another  :  it  is  improper  for  combustion  or 
animal  life;  forms  neutral  salts  with  the  al- 
kalis, and  is  absorbed  by  water. 

It  is  used  to  dete£l  the  presence  of  lime, 
with  .which  it  forms  a  white  insoluble  com- 
pound. 

EXPERIMENT  XXXI. 
Pour  some  lime-water  into  a  wine  glass, 
and  add  a    small   quantify  of  the  carbonic 
acid  to  it,  and  a  white  precipitate  will  be 
produced. 

The  carbonic,  acid,  unites  to  the  lime,  and 
forms  carbonate  of  lime. 

Of  the  Sulphuric  or  Vitriolic  Acid,  or  (he 
Oil  of  Vitriol. 

The  sulphuric  acid  is  obtained  by  burn- 
ing a  mixture,  composed  of  one  eighth  part 
of  nitre,  and  one  of  sulphur,  in  a  large 
chamber  lined  with  lead. 

A  quantity  of  water  is  placed  on  the 
floor,  to  absorb  the  acid  vapors. 


The  nitre  yields  pure  air  to  the  sulphur, 
by  which  means  it  is  converted  into  the  vi- 
triolic acid.  / 

The  sulphuric  acid  is  unftuoiis  to  the 
touch  ;  hence  it  is  called  the  oil  of  vitriol. 
It  acls  strongly  on  combustible  bodies,  and 
is  decomposed  by  combining  with  them. 

EXPERIMENT  XXXIf. 
Put  half  an  ounce  of  water  into  a  vial,  and 
add  one  drachm  of  sulphuric  acid  to  it, 
and  a  high  degree  of  heat  will  be  produced, 
which  may  be  felt  by  grasping  the  vial  in 
the  hand. 

The  sulphureous  acid  gas.  or  volatile  vi- 
triolic acid,  is  obtained  by  decomposing  the 
sulphuric  acid)  with  a  combustible  body. 

EXPERIMENT  XXXIIL 
Put  some  sweet  oil  into  a  vial,  and  pour 
upon  it  a  small  quantity  of  the  sulphuric 
acid  ;  connect  a  glass  syphon  to  the  vial,  and 
proceed  in  the  manner  directed  to  obtain 
oxigcnous  gas. 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

cal  Society"  for  1799,  were  discussed  at  considerable 
length  by  him.  His  replies  consisted  chiefly  of  experi- 
mental refutations  of  the  statements  of  the  great  teacher. 

An  ANSWER  to  DR.  JOSEPH  PRIESTLEY'S  ARGU- 
MENTS against  the  ANTIPHLOGISTIC  SYSTEM  OF 
CHEMISTRY,  published  in  the  Medical  Repository,  and 
a  VINDICATION  of  the  PRINCIPLES  contained  in  the 
72d  Essay  of  the  fourth  Volume  of  the  American  Philo- 
sophical Transactions.  By  JAMES  WOODHOUSE,  M.  D. 


NO.  1. 

First.      ON    THE    REVIVAL    OF    A    METALLIC    CALX    IN   IN- 
FLAMMABLE  AIR. 

When  the  focus  of  a  burning  lens  is  thrown  upon  a  calx 
of  mercury,  confined  in  hydrogenous  gas,  according  to  the 
antiphlogistic  theory  of  chemistry,  the  oxygen  of  the  calx 
unites  to  the  hydrogen,  and  forms  water;  but,  according 
to  Dr.  Priestley,  the  hydrogen  enters  into  the  metal,  while 
the  oxygen  is  found  mixed  with  that  part  of  the  hydro- 
genous gas  which  remains  behind. 

The  Doctor  declares,  in  support  of  this  question,  that, 
in  several  of  his  experiments,  the  pure  air,  expelled  by 
the  heat  of  the  lens  from  the  mercurial  calx,  was  found 
mixed  with  the  remainder 'of  the  inflammable  air,  as  ap- 
peared by  the  test  of  nitrous  air,  and  by  some  disagreeable 
explosions  which  happened  in  the  process. 

Having  performed  the  experiment  of  the  revival  of  red 
precipitate  in  hydrogenous  gas,  twenty  times,  without 
having  met  with  an  explosion,  I  concluded  that  Dr.  Priest- 
ley's inflammable  air  must  have  been  mixed  with  atmos- 
pheric air.  I  was  of  this  opinion,  because  I  never  could 
detect  any  pure  air  mixed  with  the  inflammable  air,  after 

80 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

the  revival  of  a  mercurial  calx  in  it,  by  the  test  of  nitrous 
air. 

Since  my  answer  to  the  Doctor's  two  pamphlets,  I  have 
frequently  repeated  these  experiments,  and  with  the  same 
results  as  before. 

The  focus  of  a  lens  was  thrown  upon  red  precipitate, 
confined  in  sixty-two  ounce  measures  of  inflammable  air, 
when  fifty-two  ounce  measures  of  the  air  disappeared.  One 
measure  of  the  air  which  remained  behind,  tried  by  the 
test  of  nitrous  air,  produced  no  red  appearance,  and  gave 
no  absorption. 

A  quantity  of  the  black  oxyd  of  manganese  was  also 
exposed  to  the  focus  of  the  lens,  in  fifty-six  ounce  measures 
of  inflammable  air,  when  fifty-four  ounce  measures  of  the 
air  disappeared  the  remaining  air  was  azotic,  and  contained 
no  inflammable  or  pure  air,  as  appeared  by  applying  a 
lighted  taper  to  it,  and  by  the  nitrous  test. 

Similar  experiments  were  made  in  the  presence  of  Dr. 
Seybert,  Dr.  Jacobs,  and  Mr.  Lee,  gentlemen  who  are  per- 
fectly acquainted  with  the  subject  in  dispute,  and  who 
appeared  satisfied,  that  pure  air,  expelled  by  heat  from 
a  mercurial  calx  confined  in  inflammable  air,  is  not  found 
in  that  portion  of  the  air  which  remains  behind. 

I  must,  however,  admit  that  I  met  with  an  explosion  in 
attempting  to  revive  red  precipitate  in  hydrogenous  gas, 
which  I  expected  contained  no  pure  air.  The  inflammable 
gas  had  been  obtained  by  adding  the  filings  of  the  bar- 
iron  to  water  which  had  been  impregnated  with  sulphur- 
ated hydrogenous  gas.  Upon  throwing  the  focus  of  the 
lens  upon  one  drachm  of  red  precipitate,  in  eight  ounce 
measures  of  this  air,  an  explosion  instantly  took  place. 
The  pure  air,  in  this  case,  could  not  have  been  given  out 
by  the  precipitate,  for  the  mercury  was  not  revived;  and, 
as  oxygenated  muriatic  acid  *  had  been  formed  by  the 
experiment,  I  cannot  account  for  the  explosion  until  we 

*  Vide  Medical  Kepository,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  214. 

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CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

are  better  acquainted  with  the  action  of  iron  filings  in 
water  impregnated  with  sulphurated  hydrogen  gas,  and 
the  formation  of  the  oxygenated  muriatic  acid  which  is 
found  in  the  process. 

A  strong,  and  in  my  opinion,  a  conclusive  argument,  in 
support  of  the  opinion  that  the  oxygen  of  the  metallic  calx 
unites  to  the  hydrogen,  and  forms  water,  is,  that  the  dis- 
appearance of  the  inflammable  air  is  always  in  strict  pro- 
portion to  the  pure  air  which  the  calces  contain. 

I  have  shown  that  iron  absorbs  twice  as  much  oxygen 
as  copper,  and  that  the  calx  of  iron  makes  twice  as  much 
inflammable  air  disappear  when  heated  in  it  by  the  burn- 
ing lens ;  and  if  a  part  of  the  pure  air  be  driven  off  from 
the  oxyd  of  manganese  by  heat,  and  the  oxyd  be  then  ex- 
posed to  the  action  of  the  lens  in  hydrogenous  gas,  a  very 
small  quantity  of  the  inflammable  air  will  disappear.  One 
drachm  of  the  oxyd  of  manganese  will  make  twenty-two 
ounce  measures  of  inflammable  air  vanish;  but  the  same 
quantity  of  manganese,  exposed  a  few  hours  to  a  red  heat, 
will  make  very  little  of  that  inflammable  air  disappear. 

In  my  first  answer  to  Dr.  Priestley,  I  said  the  manganese 
was  not  revived,  because  no  inflammable  air  could  be  ob- 
tained from  it  by  sulphuric  acid  and  water.  It,  however, 
in  some  cases  appears  to  be  revived,  and  is  of  a  green  col- 
our, and  the  regulus  of  manganese  is  described  by  authors. 

I  have  often  heated  a  large  proportion  of  red  precipitate 
in  inflammable  air,  confined  by  water,  which  would  rise 
in  the  vessel  which  contained  it  until  the  inflammable  air 
disappeared,  when  it  would  immediately  begin  to  fall  from 
the  pure  air  yielded  by  the  precipitate. 

In  one  of  these  experiments,  the  whole  of  the  inflammable 
air  having  vanished,  and  the  pure  air  from  the  precipitate 
having  nothing  to  unite  with,  was  found,  unmixed,  over 
the  water,  and  gave,  by  the  test  of  nitrous  air,  an  absorption 
of  160. 

If  the  theory  of  Dr.  Priestley  was  true,  that  the  pure 

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CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

air  of  the  precipitate  was  diffused  among  the  inflammable 
air,  an  explosion  would  invariably  happen  every  time  that 
a  drachm,  or  any  larger  portion  of  precipitate,  was  re- 
vived in  a  considerable  quantity  of  hydrogenous  gas. 

If  one  drachm  of  red  precipitate  was  revived  in  sixty 
ounce  measures  of  inflammable  air,  it  would  give  out  ten 
ounce  measures  of  pure  air,  which  would  be  mixed  with 
forty-eight  ounce  measures  of  inflammable  air,  and  which 
would  never  fail  to  cause  an  explosion. 

Secondly.    OF  THE  CALCINATION  OP  A  METAL  IN  PURE  AND 

ATMOSPHERIC  AIR. 

According  to  Dr.  Priestley,  when  a  metal  is  reduced  to 
a  calx,  in  pure  or  atmospherical  air,  something  which  has 
been  called  phlogiston  is  emitted  from  the  metal,  which 
unites  with  part  of  the  pure  air,  and  converts  it  into  azotic 
or  phlogisticated  air.  He  also  says,  that  the  phlogiston, 
in  some  cases,  unites  with  a  portion  of  the  pure  air,  and 
forms  fixed  air,  and  that  this  fixed  air  is  produced  by  cal- 
cining a  metal  which  contains  no  charcoal. 

In  all  my  experiments  upon  the  calcination  of  bar  and 
cast-iron,  and  copper,  in  pure  and  atmospherical  air,  I 
could  not  find  that  the  air  which  remained  behind  was  in- 
jured. When  the  focus  of  the  lens  was  thrown  upon  sixty 
grains  of  the  filings  of  copper,  filed  for  the  purpose,  con- 
fined in  sixteen  ounce  measures  of  oxygenous  gas,  twelve 
ounce  measures  of  the  air  were  absorbed  by  the  metal, 
which  was  reduced  to  a  calx.  No  fixed  or  phlogisticated 
air  was  produced,  and  the  remaining  air  was  perfectly 
pure. 

Dr.  Priestley  replies  to  this  experiment,  that  it  is  im- 
possible to  reduce  sixteen  ounce  measures  of  pure  air  to 
four,  by  calcining  a  metal  in  it,  and  that  the  remaining 
four  ounce  measures  should  be  perfectly  pure — for  to 
make  dephlogisticated  air  perfectly  pure  is  hardly  possible. 

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CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

The  oxygenous  gas  which  was  used  was  obtained  from 
lead  and  the  sulphuric  acid,  and  gave,  by  the  eudiometer, 
an  absorption  of  195  by  the  nitrous  test.  Oxygenous  gas, 
equally  as  pure  as  this,  is  seldom  met  with.  It  was  said 
to  be  perfectly  pure,  because  it  was  supposed  the  whole 
of  it  was  devoured  by  the  nitrous  test,  and  that  the  re- 
maining five  hundred  parts  of  a  measure  consisted  of  the 
impurity  of  the  nitrous  air,  which,  Dr.  Priestley  acknowl- 
edges, is  very  apt  to  vary  in  its  quality,  and  very  difficult 
to  obtain  pure. 

Although  the  Doctor  has  said,  in  the  Medical  Repository, 
that  it  is  hardly  possible  to  obtain  dephlogisticated  air  per- 
fectly pure,  yet,  in  his  pamphlet  entitled  "The  Doctrine 
of  Phlogiston  established,"  speaking  of  dephlogisticated 
and  nitrous  air  as  the  component  parts  of  nitrous  acid, 
1  'they  unite  without  residuum  or  so  small  as  not  to  enter 
into  any  computation."*  (Page  9).  If,  then,  dephlogisti- 
cated air  can  be  obtained  to  unite  with  nitrous  air,  without 
any  residuum,  the  dephlogisticated  air  must  be  perfectly 
pure. 

The  oxygenous  air  which  I  have  since  used  has  been 
of  various  degrees  of  purity,  as  180,  178,  169,  &c. 

The  focus  of  the  lens  was  thrown  upon  the  filings  of 
bar  iron,  filed  for  the  purpose,  confined  in  fifty-two  ounce 
measures  of  oxygenous  gas,  which  had  been  well-washed 
in  lime-water,  and  was  of  the  purity  of  175.  Thirty-two 
ounce  measures  of  the  air  were  absorbed  by  the  metal, 
which  was  reduced  to  a  calx.  One  measure  of  the  remain- 
ing air,  tried  in  a  eudiometer  tube  over  lime-water,  gave 
an  absorption  of  five  hundred  parts  of  fixed  air.  Another 
measure  of  the  remaining  air,  first  washed  in  lime  water, 
gave,  by  the  nitrous  test,  170. 

Repeating   this   experiment,   by  melting  the  filings  of 

*  In  the  Transactions  of  the  Koyal  Society  of  London,  for  1791, 
p.  215,  Dr.  Priestley  also  speaks  of  dephlogisticated  air  so  pure  as 
to  contain  no  sensible  quantity  of  phlogisticated  air. 

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CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

bar-iron  in  thirteen  ounce  measures  of  oxygenous  gas,  of 
the  purity  of  140,  seven  ounce  measures  of  the  air  were 
absorbed  by  the  metal.  One  measure  of  the  remaining 
air,  tried  in  a  eudiometer  tube  over  lime-water,  gave  no 
absorption,  and,  consequently,  contained  no  fixed  air.  "With 
an  equal  measure  of  nitrous  air,  it  gave  an  absorption  of 
15. 

In  these  experiments  no  phlogisticated  air  was  gen- 
erated. The  fixed  air,  formed  by  melting  the  iron  in  pure 
air,  was  formed  by  the  coal,  which  all  iron  of  commerce 
contains,  uniting  with  part  of  the  pure  air.  The  air  which 
remained  behind  was  more  impure  than  at  first,  because  a 
portion  of  the  purest  part  had  been  absorbed  from  it 
by  the  metals. 


Thirdly.    OF  CARBONIC  ACID,  OR  FIXED  AIR. 

Dr.  Priestley,  in  order  to  prove  that  fixed  air  is  pro- 
duced without  charcoal,  mentions  that  this  air  is  pro- 
duced by  heating  charcoal  of  copper  in  dephlogisticated 
air.  To  this  I  have  replied,  that  charcoal  of  copper  con- 
sists principally  of  pure  charcoal.  It  is  made  by  passing 
the  steam  of  alcohol,  which  consists  of  hydrogen  and  car- 
bon, over  red-hot  copper :  the  coal  is  deposited  on  the  cop- 
per, while  the  hydrogen  is  set  at  liberty,  in  the  form  of 
hydrogen  gas. 

The  Doctor  says,  the  French  chemists  have  given  a  much 
better  explanation  of  this  experiment  than  I  have  done — 
but  our  explanation  is  exactly  the  same.  The  fixed  air  is 
formed  by  the  carbon  of  the  charcoal  of  copper  uniting 
with  the  dephlogisticated  air.  My  opponent  has  misunder- 
stood my  meaning  in  explaining  the  experiment. 

Another  argument  used  by  Dr.  Priestley,  to  prove  that 
fixed  air  may  be  made  without  coal,  is,  that  large  quanti- 
ties of  this  kind  of  air  may  be  obtained  from,  heating  a 

85 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

mixture  of  iron  filings  and  red  precipitate.  He  declares 
the  experiment  has  never  failed  with  him,  and  I  say  it 
has  never  succeeded  with  me. 

If  large  quantities  of  fixed  air  can  be  formed,  by  heat- 
ing the  filings  of  pure  bar-iron  and  red  precipitate  to- 
gether, then  I  will  pronounce  that  fixed  air  may  be  made 
without  coal ;  but  I  am  confident  this  cannot  be  done. 

From  the  process  which  the  Doctor  has  published,  to 
purify  iron  filings,*  it  is  evident  that  those  he  used  could 
not  have  been  very  pure,  or  they  would  not  require  to  be 
first  heated,  then  washed  in  water,  and  heated  again. 

Dr.  Priestley  never  mentions  whether  he  used  the  filings 
of  bar  or  cast-iron,  which  is  essentially  necessary.  The 
filings  of  pure  bar-iron,  filed  for  the  purpose,  on  a  clean 
sheet  of  paper,  exposed  to  heat  with  red  precipitate,  will 
not  yield  any  kind  of  air;  but  cast-iron  alone,  or  mixed 
with  precipitate,  will  yield  both  inflammable  and  fixed 
air. 

One  ounce  of  the  borings  of  cannon,  and  half  an  ounce 
of  red  precipitate,  gave  thirty-two  ounce  measures  of  air, 
eleven  of  which  were  fixed,  and  twenty-one  inflammable. 
The  fixed  air  proceeded  from  the  pure  air  of  the  precipi- 
tate uniting  with  the  charcoal  of  the  cast-iron. 

The  borings,  by  analysis,  yielded  eighteen  grains  of 
charcoal  to  the  ounce. 

In  my  opinion,  the  proofs  that  fixed  air  is  composed  of 
oxygen  and  carbon,  are  as  strong  as  that  Glauber's  salt 
is  composed  of  sulphuric  acid  and  soda;  for  we  are  not 
only  able  to  compose  this  gas  at  pleasure,  but  to  separate 
it  into  its  elementary  parts. 

Mr.  Tennant,  Dr.  Black,  and  other  chemists,  have  de- 
composed the  carbonic  acid,  by  heating  phosphorus  and 
powdered  limestone.  I  have  performed  the  same  experi- 
ment with  success.  Forty  grains  of  phosphorus,  cut  into 
very  small  pieces,  were  mixed  with  powdered  lime-stone, 

*  Medical  Eepository,  Vol.  II,  p.  267,  first  edition. 

86 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

and  introduced  into  a  glass  tube,  coated  with  dung  and 
clay.  Upon  exposing  the  tube  half  an  hour  to  red  heat, 
and  breaking  it  when  cold,  the  coal  was  found  mixed  with 
phosphate  of  lime.  The  phosphorus  united  with  the  oxy- 
gen of  the  carbonic  acid  of  the  lime-stone,  and  formed 
phosphoric  acid,  which  joined  with  the  lime  and  made  phos- 
phate of  lime.  The  coal  of  the  carbonic  acid  was  deposited 
among  the  phosphate  of  lime. 

If  fixed  air  is  composed  of  inflammable  and  dephlogisti- 
cated  air,*  why  is  it  not  obtained  by  exploding  pure  air, 
and  the  inflammable  air  from  malleable  iron? 

Speaking  on  this  subject,  Dr.  Priestley  says,  "when  the 
inflammable  air  was  from  the  turnings  of  cast-iron,  there 
was  a  considerable  quantity  of  fixed  air  produced ;  where- 
as there  was  either  no  fixed  air  at  all,  or  the  slightest  ap- 
pearance of  it  imaginable,  when  I  made  use  of  inflammable 
air  from  malleable  iron. ' '  f 

The  reason  that  the  inflammable  air,  from  the  turnings 
of  cast-iron,  yields  fixed  air,  when  fired  with  dephlogisti- 
cated  air,  is,  that  it  holds  coal  in  solution,  which  unites 
with  the  pure  air  to  form  the  fixed  air,  and  no  fixed  air 
is  obtained  from  the  inflammable  air  from  malleable  iron, 
because  it  contains  but  a  very  minute  portion  of  coal. 
If  fixed  air  can  be  formed  by  exploding  only  one  kind  of 
inflammable  air  with  pure  air,  there  must  be  some  foreign 
substance  in  the  inflammable  air;  and  what  can  this  be  if 
it  is  not  coal?  for  bar  and  cast-iron  differ  from  each  other 
only  in  the  quantity  of  coal  they  contain — an  ounce  of 
bar-iron  yielding  but  half  a  grain  of  coal,  and  the  same 
quantity  of  cast-iron,  as  I  have  said  before,  eighteen 
grains. 

The  Doctor  says,  when  any  substance,  known  to  contain 
oxygen,  is  heated  in  inflammable  air,  fixed  air  is  found. 

*  ' '  We  say  that  fixed  air  consists  of  inflammable  and  dephlogisti- 
cated  air."  Vide  Doctrine  of  Phlogiston  established,  p.  61. 

t  Transactions  of  the  Koyal  Society  of  London  for  1791,  p.  221. 

87 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

(Considerations  on  the  "Doctrine  of  Phlogiston, "  part 
first,  p.  25.)  In  the  second  part  of  the  same  pamphlet 

(p.  24),  he  informs  us,  he  sometimes  gets  fixed  air.  In 
the  "Medical  Repository,"  vol.  II.  p.  164,  first  edit,  he 
mentions  that  no  sensible  quantity  of  fixed  air  is  procured 
in  this  process.  If  red  precipitate  is  heated  in  inflammable 
air,  from  malleable  iron,  the  result  will  be  uniform;  no 
fixed  air  will  be  generated,  but  it  will  be  invariably  made, 
if  the  mercurial  calx  is  revived  in  carbonated  inflammable 
air,  from  the  pure  air  of  the  precipitate  uniting  with  the 
carbon  held  in  solution  in  this  gas.  If  fixed  air  was  com- 
posed of  pure  and  inflammable  air,  it  ought  always  to  be 
obtained  in  this  process. 

When  the  focus  of  a  burning  lens  is  thrown  upon  two 
drachms  of  red  precipitate,  in  thirty-two  ounce  measures 
of  inflammable  air,  from  malleable  iron,  twenty-two  ounce 
measures  of  the  air  will  disappear ;  but  when  three  drachms 
of  the  same  precipitate  are  heated  in  thirty-six  ounce 
measures  of  carbonated  inflammable  air,  from  the  flowers 
of  zinc  and  coal,  which  has  been  well  washed  in  lime-water, 
but  two  ounces  of  the  air  will  vanish.  In  the  first  case  no 
fixed  air  will  be  obtained,  but  in  the  second  there  will  be 
a  great  production  of  this  gas. 


Fourthly.    OF  FINERY  CINDER,  OR  THE  SCALES  OF  IRON. 

Large  quantities  of  carbonated  inflammable  air,  mixed 
with  a  portion  of  fixed  air,  are  produced  by  heating  finery 
cinder  and  charcoal  together,  though  both  may  have  been 
previously  exposed  to  ever  so  high  a  degree  of  heat.  In 
considering  what  takes  place  in  this  process,  we  must  call 
to  our  aid  the  decomposition  of  water,  the  clue  which  leads 
us  through  all  the  labyrinths  of  the  antiphlogistic  system 
of  chemistry.  The  carbonated  inflammable  air  is  formed 
by  the  hydrogen  of  the  water,  which  is  supplied  by  the 

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CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

finery  cinder  dissolving  part  of  the  coal,  while  the  oxygen 
of  the  water  and  finery  cinder,  uniting  with  another  part 
of  the  coal,  make  the  fixed  air. 

We  are  under  a  necessity  of  admitting  the  presence  of 
water  in  the  finery  cinder.  It  cannot  be  in  the  coal,  where 
Berthollet,  Fourcroy,  and  other  chemists  find  it;  for,  in 
my  experiments,  the  coal  has  ceased  to  yield  air,  and,  con- 
sequently, could  not  contain  water. 

In  my  first  reply  to  Dr.  Priestley,  I  said  the  iron  was 
not  revived.  I  find,  however,  after  the  finery  cinder  is 
exposed  to  heat  with  charcoal,  it  will  yield  inflammable 
air  when  mixed  with  sulphuric  acid  and  water.  The  iron, 
then,  must  be  in  a  revived  state.  I  was  deceived,  by  sup- 
posing that  a  calx  of  iron  could  not  be  revived  in  a  degree 
of  heat  less  than  that  at  which  it  fuses.  Cast-iron  melts  at 
130  deg.  and  my  finery  cinder  was  exposed  to  but  24  deg. 
of  Wedgwood's  thermometer. 

I  consider  the  arguments  of  the  Doctor,  relating  to 
finery  cinder  and  charcoal,  as  a  complete  refutation  of  the 
doctrine  of  the  French  chemists,  relating  to  this  subject, 
though  I  do  not  think  the  new  theory  is  essentially  affected 
by  anything  which  he  has  advanced.  Part  of  the  weight 
of  the  scales  of  iron  is  certainly  owing  to  water.  The  ad- 
vocates of  the  antiphlogiston  system  have  overlooked  the 
agency  of  this  fluid  in  the  finery  cinder. 

If,  in  future,  I  find  that  no  more  fixed  air  is  obtained 
from  the  scales  of  iron  and  charcoal  than  from  coal  and 
water,  I  will  agree  with  my  opponent,  that  they  contain 
but  a  very  small  quantity  of  oxygen,  or  none  at  all. 


Fifthly.     OF  THE  PRECIPITATION  OP  ONE  METAL  BY  ANOTHER. 

Inflammable  air  is  produced,  when  zinc  is  used  to  precipi- 
tate lead  from  a  solution  of  sugar  of  lead,  or  iron  from  its 
solution  in  the  muriatic  acid.  The  French  chemists  ap- 

89 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

pear  to  be  unacquainted  with,  this  circumstance,  as  well 
as  with  many  other  important  discoveries  made  by  my 
illustrious  opponent.  Mrs.  Fulhame,  who  has  written  on 
the  precipitation  of  metals,  was  ignorant  of  the  fact. 

I  have  obtained  inflammable  air, 

1st,  From  the  filings  of  zinc,  and  a  solution  of  the  sul- 
phates of  iron  and  copper. 

2ndly,  From  the  filings  of  bar  and  cast-iron,  and  the 
sulphate  of  copper. 

3dly,  From  copper,  precipitated  from  blue  vitriol  by 
zinc,  which  was  washed  in  water  until  the  water  would  not 
precipitate  muriated  barytes,  mixed  with  the  filings  of 
zinc.  And, 

4thly,  From  the  oxyd  of  copper,  precipitated  from  blue 
vitriol  by  caustic  pot-ash,  and  the  filings  of  zinc  and  iron. 

One  scruple  of  the  filings  of  zinc,  and  eight  ounces  of  a 
saturated  solution  of  blue  vitriol,  in  eleven  hours  yielded 
no  air:  a  second  scruple  being  added,  in  the  same  space 
of  time  no  air  was  obtained :  upon  adding  the  third  scruple, 
in  forty-eight  hours  one  fourth  of  an  ounce  measure  of  in- 
flammable air  was  produced.  The  precipitated  copper 
weighed  forty-five  grains.  It  was  not  until  after  the  eighth 
scruple  was  used  that  the  air  was  obtained  in  any  quantity. 

Half  an  ounce  of  the  filings  of  zinc,  and  eight  ounces 
of  a  saturated  solution  of  green  vitriol,  gave,  in  nineteen 
days,  forty  ounce  measures  of  inflammable  air. 

One  ounce  of  the  filings  of  zinc,  and  eight  ounces  of  a 
saturated  solution  of  blue  vitriol,  gave,  in  ten  days,  sixty- 
four  ounce  measures  of  inflammable  air. 

The  filings  of  iron  afford  but  a  small  quantity  of  in- 
flammable air,  compared  to  zinc,  when  mixed  with  the  sul- 
phate of  copper.  One  ounce  of  the  borings  of  cannon,  and 
eight  ounces  of  a  solution  of  blue  vitriol,  in  four  days  pro- 
duced but  six  ounce  measures  of  inflammable  air.  A  con- 
siderable degree  of  heat  is  generated  in  this  process. 

In  these  experiments,  when  the  precipitant  is  added  in 

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CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

small  portions,  the  operation  which  takes  place  is  its  solu- 
tion without  any  production  of  air.  The  oxygen  of  the 
dissolved  mineral  unites  with  the  precipitant,  forming  an 
oxyd,  which  is  immediately  dissolved  by  the  acid.  The 
precipitated  metal  is  in  a  revived  state,  from  the  loss  of 
its  oxygen.  When  the  precipitant  has  robbed  the  dis- 
solved metal  of  the  whole  of  its  oxygen,  it  decomposes  the 
water  by  means  of  part  of  the  acid  to  which  the  dissolved 
metal  was  united.  The  oxygen  of  the  water,  united  to 
the  precipitant,  converts  it  into  a  calx,  which  is  dissolved 
by  the  acid,  while  the  hydrogen  of  the  water  is  set  at 
liberty. 

When  inflammable  air  is  obtained  from  copper,  precipi- 
tated by  iron,  mixed  with  the  filings  of  zinc,  the  zinc  robs 
the  precipitated  copper  of  its  oxygen;  but  as  there  is  not 
a  sufficiency  of  oxygen  in  the  copper  to  oxyde  the  zinc  com- 
pletely, it  begins  to  decompose  the  water.  When  a  solu- 
tion of  the  sulphate  of  copper  is  precipitated  by  zinc,  the 
whole  of  the  precipitated  metal  is  not  in  a  revived  state — 
part  of  it  is  calcined. 

Upon  throwing  the  focus  of  a  burning  lens  upon  some 
of  this  precipitated  copper  in  inflammable  air,  it  made 
four  ounce  measures  of  the  air  disappear. 


Sixthly.     OF  THE  AIR  CONTAINED  IN  THE  PORES  OP  CHARCOAL, 
WHICH  HAS  BEEN  EXPOSED  TO  A  RED   HEAT. 

Dr.  Priestley  says,  that  charcoal  contains  azotic  gas, 
but  I  have  always  found  it  to  be  atmospherical  air.  One 
measure  of  the  air  obtained  from  coal,  by  means  of  water, 
gave,  with  the  nitrous  test,  an  absorption  of  90. 

Woodhouse,  in  his  opposition  to  Priestley,  was  always 
respectful  and  fair,  but  there  were  those  in  this  country 
who  were  disposed  to  belittle  the  contributions  of  the 

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CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

great  philosopher.  Among  these  was  John  Maclean,  Pro- 
fessor at  Princeton.  "Woodhouse  felt  called  upon  to  an- 
swer one  of  his  attacks  upon  Priestley.  The  reader  may 
form  an  idea  of  the  character  of  Woodhouse 's  disputa- 
tions from  that  communication: 

A  Letter  to  DR.  JOHN  MACLEAN,  Professor  of 
Mathematics  and  Natural  Philosophy  in  Princeton  Col- 
lege, New  Jersey,  by  JAMES  WOODHOUSE,  M.D. 

Sm, 

As  there  are  several  assertions,  in  your  examination  of 
Dr.  Priestley's  considerations  on  the  doctrine  of  phlogis- 
ton and  decomposition  of  water,  relating  to  some  important 
parts  of  chemistry,  which  are  absolutely  erroneous,  I 
think  it  necessary  to  call  your  attention  to  the  subject. 

As  you  wrote  your  dissertation  expressly  to  prevent  the 
youth  of  Princeton  college  from  falling  even  into  tempo- 
rary delusion,  and  as  public  controversy  is  always  favour- 
able to  the  cause  of  truth,  you  can  have  no  rational  objec- 
tion to  this  letter. 

A  judgment  may  be  formed  how  well  you  have  accom- 
plished your  purpose,  and  what  right  you  have  to  con- 
demn the  experiments  of  Dr.  Priestley  in  the  authoritative 
manner  you  have  done,  having  made  none  yourself,  from 
the  following  particulars.  You  are  not  yet,  Doctor,  the 
conqueror  of  this  veteran  in  philosophy. 

You  agree  with  the  French  chemists,  that  turbith  min- 
eral is  an  oxyde  of  mercury,  and  have  asserted,  that  any 
substance  into  which  it  may  be  converted  by  a  red  heat, 
does  not  require  any  addition  to  constitute  it  a  metal. 

Now,  the  very  contrary  of  this  is  true;  for  we  have 
the  most  conclusive  proofs,  that  turbith  mineral  is  not  an 
oxyde,  but  a  sulphate  of  mercury. 

1st.  If  pure  turbith  mineral  is  exposed  to  a  red  heat, 

92 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

in  a  long  glass  tube,  a  quantity  of  the  sulphate  of  mer- 
cury, of  a  white  colour  and  strong  acrid  taste,  sublimes 
from  it,  and  adheres  to  the  sides  of  the  vessel. 

2dly.  If  a  solution  of  caustic  pot-ash  is  boiled  upon 
the  turbith,  it  suffers  a  considerable  loss  in  weight,  and 
loses  its  bright  yellow  colour,  and  is  converted  into  a  calx 
of  the  colour  of  brick-dust.  The  solution,  by  spontaneous 
evaporation  in  the  open  air,  will  yield  crystals  of  vitriol- 
ated  tartar. 

3dly.  If  distilled  water  is  boiled  upon  the  turbith,  and 
renewed  from  time  to  time,  the  water  will  always  precipi- 
tate a  solution  of  muriated  barytes. 

These  experiments  incontestibly  prove,  that  turbith 
mineral  is  not  an  oxyde,  but  a  sulphate  of  mercury. 

It  is  no  objection  to  this  opinion,  that  the  turbith,  when 
exposed  to  a  red  heat,  yields  oxygenous  gas,  and  that 
running  mercury  is  obtained ;  for  the  sulphuric  acid  leaves 
one  part  of  it  and  joins  to  another,  which  sublimes  in  the 
form  of  a  white  salt.  That  part  which  the  acid  deserts 
is  converted  into  an  oxyde,  is  revived  without  addition,  and 
yields  pure  air. 

This  sulphate  of  mercury  is  the  supposed  calx  to  which 
Dr.  Priestley  refers.  It  is  sometimes  obtained  of  a  red 
colour,  owing  to  some  substance  which  deprives  a  part  of 
the  sulphuric  acid  of  its  oxygenous  gas,  and  converts  it 
into  sulphur,  which,  uniting  with  the  fluid  mercury,  sub- 
limes in  the  form  of  cinnabar,  and  gives  the  whole  of  the 
salt  a  red  colour. 

This  is  what  you  ought  to  have  ascertained,  if  you  in- 
tended to  have  acquired  the  character  of  an  accurate  in- 
vestigator. 

Your  next  assertion  is,  that  red  lead  contains  more  oxy- 
gene  than  a  calx  of  iron,  from  which  circumstance  you 
suppose,  that  the  former  calx  oxygenates  the  muriatic  acid, 
and  the  latter  does  not,  as  it  contains  but  a  small  quantity 
of  pure  air, 

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CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

Your  words  are,  "It  certainly  does  not  follow,  because 
muriatic  acid  can  separate  a  certain  portion  of  oxygene 
from  lead,  when  this  is  combined  with  a  great  quantity 
of  this  substance,  that  it  should  likewise  separate  oxygene 
from  iron,  when  this  is  united  to  a  comparatively  small 
quantity." 

You  will  grant,  that  when  a  pure  metallic  calx  is  heated 
in  hydrogenous  gas,  that  the  oxygene  of  the  calx  unites 
to  the  hydrogene,  and  forms  water;  consequently,  those 
calces  which  make  the  greatest  quantity  of  inflammable 
air  disappear,  contain  the  most  oxygene. 

Having  heated  one  drachm  of  red  lead  by  a  burning  lens, 
eleven  inches  in  diameter,  in  hydrogenous  gas,  obtained 
from  the  sulphuric  acid,  diluted  with  water,  and  malleable 
iron,  and  which  had  been  well  washed  in  lime-water,  it 
made  ten  ounce  measures  of  the  air  disappear. 

One  drachm  of  the  precipitate  of  iron,  from  green 
vitriol  by  ammoniac,  or  a  solution  of  mild  pot-ash  and  the 
common  rust  of  iron,  heated  in  the  same  manner,  made 
thirty-six  ounce  measures  of  the  air  vanish.  One  drachm 
of  the  filings  of  bar-iron  melted  in  oxygenous  gas,  ab- 
sorbed twenty-six  ounce  measures  of  this  air. 

One  hundred  grains  of  well  dried  red  lead,  according  to 
Lavoisier,  contain  89.93  metal,  and  7.64  oxygene;  and  the 
same  quantity  of  the  precipitate  of  iron,  from  green  vitriol, 
by  caustic  pot-ash,  according  to  Gadolin,  contains  58.48 
metal,  15.91  oxygene,  25.39  water.  One  hundred  parts  of 
the  yellow  calx  of  iron,  according  to  Lavoisier,  68.66  metal, 
and  32.34  oxygene. 

Your  opinion,  then,  according  to  these  experiments,  in 
regard  to  the  quantity  of  oxygene  which  the  calces  of  iron 
and  lead  contain,  is  void  of  foundation. 

The  true  reason  that  red  lead  would  oxygenate  the 
muriatic  acid,  and  that  a  calx  of  iron  will  not,  is  that  the 
former  readily  gives  its  oxygene  to  the  acid,  and  the  latter 
does  not,  owing  to  a  difference  in  the  elective  attractions 

94 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

subsisting  between  the  acid,  oxygene,  and  the  two  metals. 

It  is  evident,  that  the  oxygenation  of  the  muriatic  acid 
does  not  merely  depend  upon  the  quantity  of  oxygene  con- 
tained in  the  calx ;  for  one  drachm  of  manganese,  which  has 
been  exposed  to  a  red  heat,  and  parted  with  most  of  its 
pure  air,  will  oxygenate  the  acid  to  a  greater  degree  than 
an  ounce  of  the  calx  obtained  from  boiling  a  solution  of 
caustic  alkali  upon  turbith  mineral,  which  contains  thirty 
times  the  quantity  of  oxygenous  gas. 

You  have  also  declared  that  Dr.  Priestley  is  mistaken, 
in  saying  that  finery  cinder  will  not  acquire  rust,  and 
assert  that  it  contracts  rust  sooner  than  common  iron. 

To  determine  this  question,  a  quantity  of  the  scales 
which  the  blacksmiths  strike  off  from  a  red  hot  iron,  re- 
duced to  an  impalpable  powder,  were  exposed  to  the  action 
of  the  air  more  than  twelve  months,  and  were  sprinkled 
with  water  several  hundred  times,  were  as  free  from  rust 
as  when  first  exposed. 

The  rust  which  finery  cinder  appears  to  contract  is  ow- 
ing to  iron-filings,  with  which  it  is  frequently  mixed.  The 
pure  scales  never  will  acquire  rust ;  for,  when  bar-iron 
is  converted  into  finery  cinder,  it  parts  with  the  small 
quantity  of  coal  it  contained,  and  absorbs  oxygene  and 
water. 

You  have  answered  the  Doctor,  on  this  part  of  the  con- 
troversy, by  informing  him,  that  inflammable  air  is  a  con- 
stituent part  of  other  bodies  besides  water;  that  hydro- 
gene  is  retained,  with  greater  force,  by  coal;  that  un- 
glazed  earthen  vessels  absorb  moisture;  and,  lastly,  you 
tell  him  in  what  manner  the  experiment  ought  to  have 
been  performed,  and  declare  that  it  is  of  no  value,  as 
reported  in  his  experiments  on  different  kinds  of  air. 

I  have  repeated  this  famous  experiment,  and  the  result 
is  exactly  as  stated  by  Dr.  Priestley. 

One  ounce  of  the  scales  of  iron,  and  the  same  quantity 
of  charcoal,  were  separately  exposed,  in  two  covered  cruci- 

95 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

bles,  in  an  air-furnace,  well  supplied  with  fuel,  for  five 
hours.  They  were  then  taken  out  of  the  fire,  and  mixed, 
while  red-hot,  in  a  red-hot  iron  mortar — were  poured  upon 
a  red-hot  piece  of  sheet-iron,  and  instantly  put  into  a  red- 
hot  gun  barrel,  which  was  fixed  in  one  of  Lewis's  black 
lead  furnaces,  and  communicated  with  the  worm  of  a  re- 
frigeratory, a  part  of  a  hydro-pneumatic  apparatus.  Im- 
mediately after,  luting  the  gun  barrel  to  the  worm,  one 
hundred  and  forty-two  ounce  measures  of  inflammable 
air  came  over  in  torrents,  mixed  with  a  tenth  part  of  car- 
bonic acid  gas. 

This  experiment  has  puzzled  every  person  to  whom  it  has 
been  mentioned. 

For  my  part,  I  do  not  think  it  affects  the  antiphlogistic 
system ;  for  the  scales  of  iron  contain  water,  and  retain  it 
in  so  obstinate  a  manner  as  not  to  part  with  it  upon  the 
application  of  heat;  but  when  coal  is  added  to  the  finery 
cinder,  it  takes  away  the  water,  by  having  a  greater  affinity 
to  it  than  to  the  calx  of  iron.  The  coal  decomposes  this 
water ;  its  oxygene  unites  to  part  of  the  coal,  and  forms  the 
carbonic  acid;  while  its  hydrogene  is  separated,  dissolves 
another  part  of  the  coal,  and  forms  the  carbonated  hydro- 
gene  gas. 

Dr.  Priestley's  explanation  of  this  experiment  is  very 
unsatisfactory;  for  he  says,  the  phlogiston  of  the  charcoal 
contributes  to  revive  the  iron;  but  the  Doctor  ought  to 
have  remembered,  that  an  oxyde  of  iron  cannot  be  revived 
in  one  of  Lewis's  small  black  lead  furnaces. 

There  are  other  substances  besides  finery  cinder,  which, 
when  mixed  with  coal  which  has  ceased  to  yield  air,  give 
inflammable  air  in  large  quantities.  It  may  be  obtained 
from  any  precipitate  of  iron  or  zinc,  or  from  the  flowers 
of  zinc  mixed  with  red-hot  coal;  and  the  hydrogen  gas 
procured  will  always  be  in  proportion  to  the  water  which 
the  calces  contain,  and  the  metals  will  not  be  revived. 

Should  you  consider  the  objections  of  Dr.  Priestley  once 

96 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

more,  and  advance  nothing  but  what  is  founded  upon  your 
own  experiments,  you  may  hear  from  me  again;  and  I 
promise  not  to  be  the  first  to  drop  the  subject. 

Mere  assertions  only  serve  to  fix  errors  deeply  in  the 
mind,  and  do  not  advance  the  cause  of  truth. 

Hoping  that  I  do  not  intrude  upon  the  precious  moments 
of  your  time,  which  is  more  agreeably,  and,  perhaps,  more 
usefully  employed,  than  in  discussing  this  subject, 
I  am,  Sir,  with  consideration, 
Yours,  &c. 

JAMES  WOODHOUSE. 
DR.  JOHN  MACLEAN. 

Woodhouse's  ability  as  an  investigator  and  an  experi- 
menter are  demonstrated  in  the  subjoined  essay : 

OBSERVATIONS  ON  SEVERAL  METHODS  OF 
OBTAINING  OXYGENOUS  GAS  IN  A  VERY  PURE 
STATE. 

A  cheap  and  easy  method  of  obtaining  oxygenous  gas, 
perfectly  pure,  in  large  quantities,  has  long  been  a  de- 
sideratum with  chemists.  The  azotic  air,  with  which  this 
gas  is  generally  contaminated,  renders  it  improper  to  be 
used  in  many  delicate  operations.  In  decomposing  hydro- 
gen gas,  carbonated  hydrogen  gas,  and  the  oxyds  of  car- 
bon, of  the  same  quality,  in  the  eudiometer  of  Volta,  dif- 
ferent results  will  happen,  unless  the  oxygenous  air  be 
exactly  of  the  same  strength,  or  unless  it  be  completely 
freed  of  azotic  air,  which  produces  the  variations  in  the 
experiments. 

Dr.  Priestley,  who  has  had  more  experience  in  pneu- 
matic philosophy  than  any  other  person,  says,  "to  make 
dephlogisticated  air  perfectly  pure  is  hardly  possible;"* 
and  the  French  and  British  philosophers  recommend  but 

*  Medical  Kepository,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  122. 

97 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

one  substance,  the  hyperoxygenated  muriate  of  pot-ash, 
for  this  purpose.  This  article  is  at  present  too  dear  in 
Europe  to  be  much  used  by  the  chemist,  and  it  cannot  be 
procured  in  the  United  States. 

Reflecting  upon  this  subject,  it  occurred  to  me  that  an 
oxyd  of  mercury,  prepared  by  boiling  a  solution  of  pot-ash 
upon  turbith  mineral,  would  afford  the  air  in  the  state 
required. 

Turbith  mineral  is  made  by  boiling  the  sulphuric  acid 
upon  mercury,  until  a  dry  white  salt  is  formed,  upon 
which  a  large  quantity  of  boiling  water  is  poured.  A  part 
of  the  oxygen  of  the  acid  unites  to  the  mercury,  and  con- 
verts it  into  an  oxyd,  which  is  dissolved  by  part  of  the 
acid  forming  sulphate  of  mercury.  Another  part  of  the 
oxygen  of  the  acid  seizes  hold  of  part  of  its  sulphur,  and 
makes  sulphureous  gas,  or  volatile  vitriolic  acid,  which  es- 
capes. 

The  hot  water  dissolves  the  sulphate  of  mercury,  con- 
taining an  excess  of  acid,  and  leaves  a  substance  behind, 
of  a  yellow  colour,  which  is  called  turbith  mineral. 

A  considerable  portion  of  sulphuric  acid  still  adheres 
to  this  preparation,  of  which  it  may  be  freed  by  boiling 
it  in  a  solution  of  pot-ash,  but  which  cannot  be  separated 
by  boiling  it  ever  so  long  in  water. 

The  pot-ash  will  unite  to  the  sulphuric  acid,  and  form 
sulphate  of  pot-ash,  or  vitriolated  tartar;  while  the  mer- 
cury will  be  left  in  the  form  of  an  oxyd  of  a  brown  colour. 
The  sulphate  of  pot-ash  being  soluble  in  water,  may  be 
washed  away  from  the  oxyd  of  mercury. 

The  agents  employed  in  manufacturing  this  article  are 
sulphuric  acid,  or  oxygen  and  sulphur,  mercury,  pot-ash, 
and  water;  neither  of  which,  except  the  last,  contains  any 
azotic  air,  and  this  adheres  to  and  is  thrown  away  with 
the  water.  One  ounce  of  an  oxyd  of  mercury,  prepared 
in  this  manner,  submitted  to  a  red  heat  in  an  iron  tube, 
yielded  forty  cubic  inches  of  oxygenous  gas. 

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CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

This  air  was  examined  by  phosphorus,  by  the  nitrons 
test,  and  by  exploding  it  with  hydrogen  gas  from  sul- 
phuric acid,  diluted  with  water,  and  malleable  iron. 

A  piece  of  phosphorus,  the  size  of  a  duck-shot,  was  stuck 
upon  the  end  of  an  iron  wire,  introduced  into  one  hundred 
parts  of  the  gas,  confined  over  water  in  an  eudiometer. 
Upon  approaching  a  lighted  taper  near  the  phosphorus,  it 
immediately  inflamed,  an  absorption  of  the  water  took 
place,  and  but  two  hundred  parts  of  a  measure  of  azotic 
air  remained. 

Four  measures  of  nitrous  air,  from  diluted  nitric  acid 
and  copper,  were  added  to  one  of  this  oxygen  gas,  in  an 
eudiometer.  The  first  gave  an  absorption  of  120,  the  sec- 
ond 134,  the  third  150,  and  the  fourth  70. 

Two  cubic  inches  of  this  oxygen  air,  and  four  of  hydro- 
gen gas,  exploded  by  the  electric  spark,  in  the  eudiometer 
of  Volta,  left  one-fourth  of  a  cubic  inch  of  air,  which  was 
principally  azotic. 

The  materials  and  apparatus  employed  in  making  this 
oxyd  of  mercury  are  not  very  expensive,  nor  are  the  opera- 
tions difficult  or  troublesome. 

The  acid  may  be  boiled  upon  the  mercury  in  an  oil-flask, 
and  the  boiling  water  may  be  poured  upon  the  dry  sulphate 
of  mercury  in  powder,  in  a  queen's  ware  wash-hand  basin. 
When  the  sulphate  of  mercury,  containing  an  excess  of 
acid,  is  washed  away,  the  remaining  sulphate  of  mercury, 
or  turbith  mineral,  may  be  digested  a  few  hours  in  a  hot 
solution  of  pot-ash,  which  will  free  it  from  every  particle 
of  the  sulphuric  acid.  The  greatest  part  of  the  mercury 
may  be  saved  when  the  air  is  obtained  from  the  oxyd,  for 
it  will  be  found  in  a  revived  state  in  the  iron  tube. 

If  turbith  mineral,  which  has  not  been  digested  with  a 
solution  of  pot-ash,  is  exposed  to  a  red  heat  in  a  closed 
vessel,  having  a  syphon  in  its  mouth,  it  will  afford  oxygen 
gas,  and  a  quantity  of  the  sulphate  of  mercury  of  a  white 
colour  will  sublime  from  it,  adhere  to  the  side  of  the  vessel, 

99 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

and  fill  up  the  bore  of  the  syphon ;  hence  it  is  best  to  use 
the  oxyd  prepared  from  this  salt  by  means  of  pot-ash. 

A  second  method  which  was  tried  to  procure  oxygen  gas 
in  a  pure  state,  was  by  exposing  the  leaves  of  vegetables 
to  the  influence  of  solar  light,  in  pump  water,  which  gen- 
erally contains  a  portion  of  carbonic  acid,  or  in  boiled  or 
distilled  water,  impregnated  with  this  air. 

A  small  handful  of  the  green  leaves  of  any  plant  will 
yield  six,  eight,  or  ten  cubic  inches  of  oxygenous  air,  when 
exposed  to  the  action  of  the  sun  in  one  hundred  and  forty 
cubic  inches  of  the  pump  water  of  this  city ;  and,  provided 
the  air  was  pure,  as  we  would  expect  a  priori,  for  it  arises 
from  the  decomposition  of  the  carbonic  acid,  which  con- 
tains no  azote,  it  could  be  obtained  in  sufficient  quantities, 
in  the  summer  season  for  chemical  experiments.  A  small 
handful  of  the  healthy  leaves  of  Datura  stramonium, 
Phytolacca  decandra,  and  Polygonum  aviculare,  were  sep- 
arately exposed,  eight  hours,  to  the  light  of  the  sun,  in 
one  hundred  and  twenty  cubic  inches  of  pump  water, 
which  was  known  to  contain  carbonic  acid,  and  in  the  same 
quantity  of  boiled  and  distilled  water,  impregnated  with 
this  air. 

From  six  to  eight  cubic  inches  of  oxygen  gas  were  ob- 
tained from  the  leaves  of  each  plant. 

Phosphorus,  inflamed  over  water,  in  one  hundred  parts 
of  this  gas,  absorbs  70  parts :  the  remaining  30  parts  were 
azotic  air,  as  appeared  by  the  nitrous  test. 

Three  measures  of  nitrous  gas  were  added  to  one  of  this 
oxygenous  air.  The  first  gave  an  absorption  of  100,  the 
second  105,  and  the  third  0. 

Two  cubic  inches  of  the  oxygen  gas,  exploded  in  the 
eudiometer  of  Volta,  with  four  cubic  inches  of  hydro- 
gen gas,  left  two  cubic  inches  of  inflammable  and  azotic 
air. 

From  whence  came  this  azotic  air  with  which  the  oxygen 
gas  was  so  highly  contaminated  ?  Was  it  separated  by  the 

100 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

light  and  heat  of  the  sun  from  the  water,  or  was  it  ex- 
creted by  the  leaves? 

As  it  is  difficult,  and  perhaps  impossible,  to  throw  off 
all  the  azotic  air  which  water  contains,  by  boiling  or  dis- 
tilling it;  and  as  the  Galvanic  influence,  passed  through 
boiled  and  distilled  water,  always  separates  a  considerable 
quantity  of  azotic  gas  from  it,  there  is  no  doubt  but  that 
this  air  was  contained  in  the  water. 

The  contamination,  however,  is  so  great,  that  the  oxygen 
gas,  procured  in  this  manner,  cannot  be  used  in  nice  ex- 
periments. 

A  third  method  which  presented  itself  of  obtaining  pure 
oxygen  gas  was  from  the  oxyd  of  manganese. 

This  metallic  substance  often  contains  carbonate  of  lime, 
always  azotic  gas,  and  frequently  carbonic  acid,  which  it 
absorbs  from  the  atmosphere. 

Two  ounce  measures  of  sulphuric  acid,  diluted  with  a 
pint  of  water,  were  boiled  one  hour  upon  half  a  pound  of 
the  oxyd  of  manganese,  in  fine  powder,  in  a  glass  retort, 
the  mouth  of  which  entered  a  jar,  filled  with  water, 
and  placed  upon  the  shelf  of  an  hydropneumatic  tub. 
Fifty  cubic  inches  of  air  were  obtained,  forty-six  of  which 
were  carbonic  acid  gas,  and  four  azotic  air.  The  acid 
being  washed  away  from  the  oxyd,  a  portion  of  it  was 
exposed  to  heat  in  an  iron  tube,  and  it  afforded  oxygen 
air  perfectly  free  from  carbonic  acid  gas. 

Phosphorus,  placed  in  twenty  cubic  inches  of  this  air, 
over  water,  absorbed  nineteen  inches  of  it,  and  left  one 
cubic  inch  of  azotic  gas. 

The  same  quantity  of  oxygen  air,  from  the  same  kind 
of  manganese,  upon  which  no  acid  had  been  boiled,  treated 
in  the  same  manner,  left  two  cubic  inches  of  azotic  air. 

The  oxygen  air  from  manganese,  upon  which  no  acid 
had  been  boiled,  treated  in  the  same  manner,  left  one 
cubic  inch  of  hydrogen  and  azotic  gas. 

Four  measures  of  nitrous  air  were  added  to  one  of  the 

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CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

oxygenous  gas,  from  the  purified  manganese:  the  first 
gave  an  absorption  of  120,  the  second  145,  the  third  115, 
and  the  fourth  15. 

Four  measures  of  the  same  air  were  added  to  one  of 
the  oxygen  gas,  from  manganese  not  boiled  in  the  acid. 
The  first  gave  an  absorption  of  120,  the  second  130,  the 
third  100,  and  the  fourth  0. 

Phosphorus,  fired  in  100  parts  of  the  oxygen  gas,  from 
the  purified  manganese,  left  three  hundred  parts  of  a 
measure  of  azotic  air. 

One  hundred  parts  of  the  oxygen  gas,  from  the  man- 
ganese to  which  no  acid  had  been  added,  treated  in  the 
same  manner,  left  five  parts  of  azotic  air. 

The  quantity  of  azotic  gas  contained  in  this  oxyd  of 
manganese  was  very  small,  and  the  greater  part  of  it  was 
thrown  off  with  the  carbonic  acid,  by  the  sulphuric  acid 
and  water. 

Exposing  the  purified  manganese,  in  an  earthen  retort, 
to  a  red  heat,  the  oxygen  air  obtained  was  found  to  contain 
ten  per  cent,  azotic  gas.  A  part  of  the  atmospheric  air 
entered  the  pores  of  the  heated  retort,  and  mixed  with  the 
oxygen  gas:  hence  an  earthen  vessel  never  should  be  used 
when  it  is  necessary  to  have  oxygen  air  very  pure. 

Although  many  writers  say  that  oxygen  gas  can  be 
procured  perfectly  pure  from  the  hyperoxygenated  muriate 
of  pot-ash,  yet  I  never  could  obtain  it  of  a  higher  degree 
of  purity  than  the  air  from  the  oxyd  of  mercury,  from 
turbith  mineral  by  pot-ash,  or  from  manganese  boiled  in 
sulphuric  acid  and  water.  Upon  comparing  the  oxygen 
gas  from  these  three  substances,  no  difference  could  be 
observed  between  them.  The  oxygen  air,  from  the  oxy- 
muriate  of  pot-ash,  devoured  nearly  four  measures  of 
nitrous  gas,  yielded  two  per  cent,  azotic  air,  when  phos- 
phorus was  fired  in  it,  and  left  one-fourth  of  a  cubic  inch 
of  azotic  and  hydrogen  gas,  when  two  cubic  inches  of  it 
were  exploded  with  double  the  quantity  of  hydrogen  gas. 

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CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

My  experiments  on  this  subject  exactly  coincide  with 
those  of  Dr.  Priestley,  and  it  is  highly  probable  that  oxy- 
gen gas  never  has  been  obtained  in  a  state  of  perfect  purity. 

There  are  several  other  oxyds  of  mercury,  besides  that 
from  turbith  mineral,  from  which  oxygen  air  may  be  ob- 
tained very  pure,  as  mercurius  precipitatus  per  se,  the 
oxyd  from  red  precipitate,  boiled  in  a  solution  of  pot-ash, 
to  free  it  from  every  particle  of  nitric  acid  it  may  con- 
tain; but  these  preparations  are  very  expensive. 

Having  examined  two  hundred  cubic  inches  of  the  oxy- 
gen air  from  nitre,  as  it  was  produced,  the  first  few  cubic 
inches  were  found  to  be  mixed  with  six  per  cent,  of  azotic 
air,  which  gradually  increased  until  it  amounted  to  forty 
parts  in  the  hundred,  which  the  last  portions  contained; 
so  that  the  air  from  this  salt  scarcely  deserves  the  name  of 
oxygen  gas. 

Benjamin  Silliman,  the  elder,  spent  the  winter  of  1802- 
1803  and  that  of  1803-1804  in  Philadelphia,  for'the  purpose 
of  attending  lectures  on  chemistry  and  allied  subjects. 
He  has  left  a  most  interesting  word-picture  of  Woodhouse : 

The  lectures  on  Chemistry  by  Dr.  James  Woodhouse 
were  given  in  a  small  building  in  South  Fifth  Street,  op- 
posite to  the  State-House  Yard.  Above,  over  the  labora- 
tory, was  the  Anatomical  Hall.  Neither  of  these  establish- 
ments was  equal  to  the  dignity  and  importance  of  the 
Medical  School,  and  the  accommodations  in  both  were 
limited;  the  lecture-rooms  were  not  capacious  enough  for 
more  than  one  hundred  or  one  hundred  and  twenty  pupils 
and  there  was  a  great  deficiency  of  extra  room  for  the  work, 
which  was  limited  to  a  few  closets.  The  chemical  lectures 
were  important  to  me,  who  had  as  yet  seen  few  chemical 
experiments.  Those  performed  by  Dr.  Woodhouse  were 
valuable,  because  every  fact,  with  its  proof,  was  an  acqui- 

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CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

sition  to  me.  The  apparatus  was  humble,  but  it  answered 
to  exhibit  some  of  the  most  important  facts  in  the  science ; 
and  our  instructor  delighted,  though  he  did  not  excel, 
in  the  performance  of  experiments.  He  had  no  proper 
assistant,  and  the  work  was  imperfectly  done;  but  still  it 
was  a  treasure  to  me.  Our  Professor  had  not  the  gift  of 
a  lucid  mind,  nor  of  high  reasoning  powers,  nor  of  a  fluent 
diction;  still,  we  could  understand  him,  and  I  soon  began 
to  interpret  phenomena  for  myself  and  to  anticipate  the 
explanations.  Dr.  Woodhouse  was  wanting  in  personal 
dignity,  and  was,  out  of  lecture  hours,  sometimes  jocose 
with  the  students.  He  appeared,  when  lecturing,  as  if  not 
quite  at  his  ease,  as  if  a  little  fearful  that  he  was  not  highly 
appreciated, — as  indeed  he  was  not  very  highly. 

In  his  person  he  was  short,  with  a  florid  face.  He  was 
always  dressed  with  care ;  generally  he  wore  a  blue  broad- 
cloth coat  with  metal  buttons;  his  hair  was  powdered,  and 
his  appearance  was  gentlemanly.  His  lectures  were  quite 
free  from  any  moral  bearing,  nor,  as  far  as  I  remember 
did  he  ever  make  use  of  any  of  the  facts  revealed  by  chem- 
istry, to  illustrate  the  character  of  the  Creator  as  seen  in 
his  works.  At  the  commencement  of  the  course  he  treated 
with  levity  and  ridicule  the  idea  that  the  visitations  of  the 
yellow  fever  might  be  visitations  of  God  for  the  sins  of  the 
people.  He  imputed  them  to  the  material  agencies  and 
physical  causes — forgetting  that  physical  causes  may  be 
the  moral  agents  of  the  Almighty.  His  treatment  of  my- 
self was  courteous.  I  dined  with  him  in  his  snug  little 
bachelor's  establishment, — for  he  had  no  family,  and  a 
matron  housekeeper  superintended  his  small  establishment. 
I  should  add  respecting  his  lectures  that  they  were  brief. 
He  generally  occupied  a  third  or  a  fourth  of  the  hour  in 
recapitulating  the  subject  of  the  preceding  lecture,  and 
thus  he  advanced  at  the  rate  of  about  forty  or  forty-five 
minutes  in  a  day. 

At  the  commencement  of  my  first  course  with  him,  in 

104 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

1802,  he  had  just  returned  from  London,  where  he  had 
been  with  Davy  and  other  eminent  men.  He  brought  with 
him  a  galvanic  battery  of  Cruickshank's  construction, — 
the  first  that  I  had  ever  seen, — but  as  it  contained  only 
fifty  pairs  of  plates,  it  produced  little  effect.  Dr.  Wood- 
house  attempted  to  exhibit  the  exciting  effects  of  Davy's 
nitrous  oxide,  but  failed  for  want  of  a  sufficient  quantity 
of  gas,  and  the  tubes  were  too  narrow  for  comfortable 
respiration.  He  did  not  advert  to  these  facts,  but  was 
inclined  to  treat  the  supposed  discovery  as  an  illusion.  I 
had  afterwards,  at  New  Haven,  an  opportunity  to  prove 
that  there  was  no  mistake,  and  that  Davy  had  not  over- 
rated the  exhilarating  effects  of  the  gas  when  respired 
conveniently  and  in  proper  quantities, — three  or  four 
quarts  to  a  person  of  medium  size,  inhaled  through  a  wide 
tube.  An  amusing  occurrence  happened  one  day  in  the 
laboratory.  Hydrogen  gas  was  the  subject,  and  its  rela- 
tion to  life.  It  was  stated  that  an  animal  confined  in  it 
would  die ;  and  a  living  hen  was,  for  the  experiment,  im- 
mersed in  the  hydrogen  gas  with  which  a  bell-glass  was 
filled.  The  hen  gasped,  kicked,  and  lay  still.  "  There, 
gentlemen,"  said  the  Professor,  "you  see  she  is  dead";  but 
no  sooner  had  the  words  passed  his  lips,  than  the  hen 
with  a  struggle  overturned  the  bell-glass,  and  with  a  loud 
scream  flew  across  the  room,  flapping  the  heads  of  the 
students  with  her  wings,  while  they  were  convulsed  with 
laughter.  The  same  thing  might  have  occurred  to  any- 
one who  had  incautiously  omitted  to  state  that  this  gas  is 
not  poisonous,  like  carbonic  acid,  but  kills,  like  water,  by 
suffocation. 

The  death  of  Dr.  Woodhouse  took  place  in  1809,  I  sup- 
pose from  apoplexy.  He  was  found  dead  in  his  bed.  He 
had  a  short  neck,  and  was  of  a  full,  sanguineous  habit. 
The  chemistry  of  that  period — that  of  my  attendance  on 
the  lectures  of  Dr.  Woodhouse,  more  than  half  a  century 
ago — had  not  attained  the  precision  which  it  now  has, 

105 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

The  modern  doctrine  of  definite  proportions  or  equivalent 
proportions  was  then  only  beginning  to  be  understood; 
the  combining  proportions  of  bodies  were  generally  given 
in  centesimal  numbers,  and  thus  the  memory  was  burdened, 
and  with  little  satisfaction.  The  modern  analysis  of  or- 
ganic bodies  was  then  hardly  begun.  Galvanism  had  in- 
deed awakened  Europe,  and  progress  had  been  made  toward 
those  interesting  developments  which  have  filled  the  world 
with  astonishment;  but  their  era  was  several  years  later. 
We  may  not,  therefore,  impute  to  a  professor  of  that  period 
the  deficiencies  which  belonged  to  that  stage  of  the  science. 
I  had  not  reason  to  regret  that  I  attended  on  the  lec- 
tures of  Dr.  "Woodhouse.  He  supplied  the  first  stepping 
stones  by  which  I  was  enabled  at  no  distant  day  to  mount 
higher. 

Benjamin  Rush  wrote  of  Woodhouse: 

He  was  a  neat  experimenter,  but  averse  from  principles 
in  chemistry  ....  his  lectures  contained  nothing 
but  facts.  He  was  an  open  and  rude  infidel.  (Rush,  A 
Memorial,  printed  in  1905.) 

A  third  contemporary  remarks: 

Upon  Woodhouse 's  appointment  to.  the  professorship 
at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  he  began  immediately 
to  prepare  himself  for  the  duties  of  his  new  and  promis- 
ing career.  He  became,  in  a  short  time,  so  expert  and 
successful  an  experimenter,  as  to  receive  from  Dr.  Priest- 
ley, who  had  just  arrived  in  the  United  States,  very  flatter- 
ing comments  on  his  dexterity  and  skill.  That  distin- 
guished gentleman,  on  seeing  him  engaged  in  the  business 
of  his  laboratory,  did  not  hesitate  to  pronounce  him  equal, 
as  an  experimenter,  to  anyone  he  had  seen  in  either  Eng- 
land or  France.  At  times,  his  devotion  to  chemistry  and 
the  labor  he  sustained  in  the  cultivation  of  it  were  perfectly 

106 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

marvellous — not  to  say  preternatural.  During  an  entire 
summer  (one  of  the  hottest  I  have  ever  experienced),  he 
literally  lived  in  his  laboratory,  and  clung  to  his  experi- 
ments with  an  enthusiasm  and  persistency  which  at  length 
threw  him  into  a  paroxysm  of  mental  derangement.  He 
even  believed,  and,  on  one  occasion,  proclaimed,  in  a  com- 
pany of  ladies  and  gentlemen,  that,  by  chemical  agency 
alone,  he  could  produce  a  human  being. 

The  special  object  of  his  experiment  at  that  time  was 
the  decomposition  and  recomposition  of  water.  The  agent 
employed  in  his  processes  was,  of  course,  caloric.  And 
no  alchemist  in  pursuit  of  the  alcahest,  or  the  philosopher's 
stone,  ever  labored  in  his  vocation  with  a  wilder  enthusiasm, 
a  more  sublimated  intensity,  or  a  perseverance  more  stub- 
born, than  he  did,  immersed  in  a  temperature  intolerable 
to  any  human  being  possessed  of  natural  and  healthful 
sensibility. 

As  already  mentioned,  the  weather  was  almost  un- 
precedentedly  hot ;  and  his  laboratory  was  in  sundry  places 
perpetually  glowing  with  blazing  charcoal,  and  red-hot 
furnaces,  crucibles,  and  gun-barrels,  and  often  bathed  in 
every  portion  of  it  with  the  steam  of  boiling  water.  Rarely, 
during  the  day,  was  the  temperature  of  its  atmosphere 
lower  than  from  110°  to  115°  of  Fahrenheit — at  times, 
perhaps,  even  higher. 

Almost  daily  did  I  visit  the  professor  in  that  sala- 
mander 'a  home,  and  uniformly  found  him  in  the  same  con- 
dition— stripped  to  his  shirt  and  summer  pantaloons,  his 
collar  unbuttoned,  his  sleeves  rolled  up  above  his  elbows, 
the  sweat  streaming  copiously  down  his  face  and  person, 
and  his  whole  vesture  drippingly  wet  with  the  same  fluid. 
He,  himself,  moreover,  being  always  engaged  in  either 
actually  performing  or  closely  watching  and  superintend- 
ing his  processes,  was  stationed  for  the  most  part  in  or 
near  to  one  of  the  hottest  spots  in  his  laboratory. 

My  salutation  to  him  on  entering  his  semi-Phlegethon 

107 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

of  heat  not  infrequently  was:  "Good  God,  doctor,  how  can 
you  bear  to  remain  so  constantly  in  so  hot  a  room  ?  It  is  a 
perfect  purgatory!"  To  this  half  interrogatory,  half  ex- 
clamation, the  reply  received  was  usually  to  the  same  pur- 
port. "Hot,  sir — hot!  do  you  call  this  a  hot  room?  Why, 
sir,  it  is  one  of  the  coolest  rooms  in  Philadelphia.  Exhala- 
tion, sir,  is  the  most  cooling  process.  And  do  you  not  see 
how  the  sweat  exhales  from  my  body,  and  carries  off  all  the 
caloric  ?  Do  you  not  know,  sir,  that,  by  exhalation,  ice  can 
be  produced  under  the  sun  of  the  hottest  climates  ? ' ' 

Such  was  the  professor's  doctrine;  nor  have  I  the 
slightest  doubt  of  his  belief  in  its  correctness.  So  deep  is 
the  hallucination  in  which  alchemy  first,  and  afterward 
chemistry,  its  lineal  descendant,  have,  in  many  cases,  in- 
volved the  minds  of  their  votaries  and  rendered  them  per- 
manently wild  and  visionary  in  their  action.  It  is  not,  I 
think,  to  be  doubted  that  alchemy  and  chemistry  have  de- 
ranged a  greater  number  of  intellects  than  all  other 
branches  of  science  united.  Even  at  the  present  day  it  is 
hardly  short  of  lunacy  to  contend,  as  many  chemists  do, 
that  chemical  and  vital  forces  are  identical. 

Dr.  Woodhouse,  phlegmatic  and  saturnine  as  he  usually 
was,  possessed  and  displayed  at  times  some  of  the  crotchets 
which  characterize  genius.  His  didactic  lectures  rarely 
occupied,  each  of  them,  more  than  forty  minutes — and 
often  not  near  so  much.  And  when  interrogated  on  the 
subject,  the  reason  he  rendered  for  such  brevity  was,  that 
"no  man  could  dwell,  in  discussion,  on  a  single  topic  more 
than  five  minutes  without  talking  nonsense." 


CHAPTER  V 

THE  arrival  of  Joseph  Priestley  in  America,  in  1794, 
and  his  frequent  presence  among  the  men  of  science 
of  that  day,  greatly  stimulated  scientific  studies.  The 
minutes  of  the  American  Philosophical  Society  show  that 
on  various  occasions  he  was  present  at  the  ordinary  meet- 
ings of  the  Society,  which  would  mean  that  men  like 
Woodhouse  and  others  probably  had  frequent  intercourse 
with  him,  and  thus,  learning  to  understand  the  man  in 
his  true  nature,  there  was  no  hostility  whatsoever  to  him. 
Benjamin  Franklin  had  made  the  most  strenuous  efforts 
to  have.  Priestley  locate  in  the  City  of  Brotherly  Love.  He 
had  been  his  friend  in  England.  He  spoke  of  him  as  the 
"  honest  heretic, "  and  it  was  Franklin  who  had  very  ma- 
terially aided  him  in  the  publication  of  his  "History  of 
Electricity."  Some  of  his  most  ardent  friends  were  also, 
at  the  time,  holding  professional  chairs  in  the  University 
of  Pennsylvania,  and  he,  himself,  had  been  invited  to  oc- 
cupy the  Chair  of  Chemistry  which  Woodhouse  later  ac- 
cepted. This  fact  is  made  quite  evident  from  the  letters 
of  Priestley  addressed  to  Dr.  Benjamin  Hush: 

NORTHUMBERLAND,  Nov.  3,  1794. 

DEAR  SIR:  I  thank  you  for  your  kind  hint  respecting 
the  professor  of  chemistry;  but  you  will  excuse  me  if  I 
feel  a  reluctance  to  comply  with  it.  I  cannot  appear  as  a 

109 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

candidate  but  if  the  place  was  offered  to  me,  I  would  do 
my  best  to  discharge  the  duties  of  it.  The  first  year,  in- 
deed, I  should  lie  under  great  disadvantage,  but  so  must 
any  other  person  suddenly  called  to  a  new  employment. 

I  am  not,  however,  at  all  anxious  about  this  business, 
hoping  we  shall  succeed  in  establishing  a  College  in  this 
place;  and  it  will  be  more  convenient  to  me  (to)  be  em- 
ployed here,  than  in  Philadelphia ;  tho '  a  call  to  spend  some 
time,  every  year,  in  that  place  would  not,  I  acknowledge, 
be  ungrateful  to  me. 

Besides  the  letter  you  mention,  I  took  the  liberty  to  write 
you  another,  about  a  house  I  propose  to  build  here,  and 
other  matters. 

With  gratitude  and  esteem,  I  am, 

Dear  Sir,  yours  sincerely, 

J.  PRIESTLEY. 
DOCTOR  RUSH,  PHILADELPHIA. 

NORTHUMBERLAND,  Nov.  11,  1794. 

Dear  Sir:  I  hope  you  will  excuse  my  weakness  (for  such 
you  will  consider  it)  when,  after  giving  you  reason  to  ex- 
pect that  I  would  accept  the  professorship  of  Chemistry,  if 
it  was  offered  to  me,  I  now  inform  you  that  I  must  decline 
it. 

On  the  receipt  of  your  obliging  letter,  I  was  determined 
to  accept  of  it,  and  in  my  own  mind  had  every  arrange- 
ment for  that  purpose.  But  when  I  began  to  consider  the 
difficulty  and  irksomeness  of  a  journey  to  Philadelphia  at 
this  time  of  the  year,  and  especially  the  obligation  I  should 
be  under  of  spending  four  months  of  every  year  from  home, 
my  wife  in  the  house  by  herself,  my  heart  failed  me. 

This,  in  fact,  is  my  only  objection,  but  it  is  an  insuper- 
able one.  I  am  truly  sensible  of  the  honour  that  is  done 
me  by  the  invitation,  and  beg  that  you  would  express  it 
for  me  to  all  the  persons  concerned.  Nothing  could  have 
been  so  pleasing  to  me  as  the  employment,  and  I  should 

110 


JOSEPH  PRIESTLEY 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

have  been  happy  in  your  society,  and  that  of  other  friends 
in  the  Capital,  and,  what  I  have  much  at  heart,  I  should 
have  an  opportunity  of  forming  an  Unitarian  congrega- 
tion in  Philadelphia.  But  the  considerations  as  mentioned, 
and  that  of  my  time  of  life,  lead  me  to  continue  where  I 
am,  waiting  for  the  opportunity  of  being  of  use  to  the 
College  which  I  hope  will  be  established  here. 

Had  this  proposal  been  made  to  me  before  the  removal 
of  my  library  and  apparatus  hither,  the  case  would  have 
been  different;  but  this  being  now  done,  at  a  great  risk 
and  expence,  I  am,  at  all  events,  fixed  for  the  remainder  of 
my  life. 

If  I  had  come,  Mr.  Henry  would  have  assisted  me  in 
collecting  materials,  and  making  the  preparations  for  the 
necessary  experiments.  As  he  is  well  qualified  for  the 
office,  if  you  be  not  better  provided,  what  should  you  think 
of  him?  At  least,  I  think  the  students  might,  with  ad- 
vantage, attend  his  lectures,  till  the  vacant  professorship 
be  filled.  This  I  observe  in  confidence,  wishing  the  hint  to 
go  no  further,  if  you  disapprove  of  it. 

With  the  greatest  gratitude  and  respect,  I  am, 
Dear  Sir,  yours  sincerely, 

J.  PRIESTLEY. 
DOCTOR  RUSH,  PHILADELPHIA. 

The  minute  of  the  Trustees  of  the  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania is  also  confirmatory  of  the  invitation  tendered 
Dr.  Priestley  and  indicates  his  final  action: 

November  11,  1794. 

The  Board,  according  to  order,  proceeded  to  the  election 
of  a  professor  of  Chemistry,  in  the  room  of  Dr.  John  Car- 
son, Deceased,  when  the  ballots  being  taken  and  counted, 
it  appeared  that  Dr.  Joseph  Priestley  was  unanimously 
elected. 

Ill 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

March  3,  1795. 

Mr.  Chief  Justice  (McKean)  informed  the  Board  that 
Dr.  Joseph  Priestley  had  declined  the  Professorship  of 
Chemistry,  to  which  he  was  elected  in  this  institution  the 
11  of  November  last. 

Not  only  Priestley's  public  papers,  written  in  this  coun- 
try, but  also  his  private  correspondence  with  men  of  science 
prove  his  complete  devotion  to  the  cause  of  "  phlogiston, " 
which  he  was  upholding.  A  letter  addressed  to  Dr. 
Mitchill,  which  appears  now  for  the  first  time  in  print, 
makes  evident  the  scientist 's  ardor  for  this  cause : 

DEAR  SIR, — 

I  am  very  glad  that  your  Medical  Repository  has  been 
extended  to  subjects  of  general  philosophy  and  chemistry. 
Had  I  known  this  before,  I  should  have  taken  the  liberty 
to  send  you  an  account  of  some  of  my  late  experiments,  es- 
pecially those  which  have  for  their  object  the  decision  of 
the  question  between  the  Phlogistians  and  the  Antiphlo- 
gistians.  I  have  not  yet  seen  any  part  of  the  work,  but 
shall  not  fail  to  procure  it  the  first  opportunity  and  con- 
sider the  history  which  you  say  it  contains  of  the  contro- 
versy between  me  and  my  opponents.  In  the  mean  time 
I  beg  you  would  communicate  to  the  publishers  the  fol- 
lowing account  of  an  experiment  which  I  wish  Dr.  Mac- 
lean and  other  advocates  of  the  new  theory  to  consider, 
and  endeavour  to  explain  on  their  principles.  Our  common 
object  is  the  investigation  of  truth,  and  surely  a  question  of 
this  nature,  purely  philosophical,  may  be  discussed  in  the 
most  amicable  manner.  The  pamphlet  in  which  I  replied 
to  Dr.  Maclean  and  Mr.  Adet  I  presume  he  will  answer  in 
a  separate  pamphlet;  and  having  waited  for  it  some  time, 
I  am  now  in  dayly  expectation  of  it. 

An  argument  on  which,  in  my  late  publication,  I  laid 

112 


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^^ 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

some  stress,  is  that  when  inflammable  air  is  procured  by 
the  solution  of  iron  in  diluted  acid  of  vitriol,  there  is  no  ad- 
dition of  oxygen  found  in  the  vessel  in  which  the  process  is 
made,  which  ought  to  be  the  case  if  the  inflammable  air 
came  from  the  decomposition  of  the  water ;  and  that  finery 
cinder,  called  by  the  Antiphlogistians,  black  oxide  of  iron, 
cannot  be  proved  to  contain  any  oxygen  at  all,  tho,  accord- 
ing to  their  principles,  it  constitutes  about  one  third  of  its 
weight.  I  have  since  this  made  a  similar  experiment  with 
zinc,  which  is  another  metal  by  means  of  which  inflammable 
air  is  easily  procured,  and  which  I  think  rather  more  de- 
cisive in  favour  of  my  hypothesis,  which  is  that  the 
inflammable  air  comes  from  the  metal,  and  not  from 
the  water  in  which  it  is  dissolved;  and  therefore  that 
metals  are  compound  substances,  consisting  of  phlo- 
giston and  peculiar  earths,  and  that  water  is  not  de- 
composed. 

On  throwing  the  focus  of  a  burning  lens  on  a  quantity 
of  lime  in  common  air,  confined  by  water,  in  a  glass  vessel, 
the  first  effect  is  the  production  of  flowers  of  zinc,  which 
makes  a  beautiful  appearance,  by  their  dispersion  within 
the  vessel;  and  during  this  part  of  the  process  the  air  is 
diminished,  the  pure  part  of  it,  no  doubt,  entering  the 
calx,  while  the  phlogisticated  part  remains  unaffected. 
After  this  the  application  of  the  heat  being  continued,  there 
is  an  increase  of  the  quantity  of  air  by  the  production  of 
inflammable  air;  and  instead  of  flower  of  zinc,  a  black 
powder  arises,  and  adheres  to  the  inside  of  the  vessel,  and 
with  care  may  be  collected. 

Now,  since  inflammable  air  is  produced,  the  Antiphlo- 
gistians must  say  that  part  of  the  water  over  which  the 
experiment  was  made  was  decomposed.  But  then  I  ask 
where  is  the  oxygen  which,  according  to  them,  constitutes 
the  far  greater  part  of  the  water?  I  cannot  find  it  any- 
where. The  water  is  entirely  free  from  acidity,  and  the  air 
expelled  from  it  afterwards  is  ever  less  pure  than  that 

116 


A 


PRIESTLEY'S  HOME  AND  LABORATORY 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

which  it  yields  before  the  process  and  if  I  examine  the 
black  powder  by  heating  it  in  confined  common  air,  it  be- 
comes a  whitish  substance,  the  air  is  diminished,  and  ren- 
dered in  a  considerable  degree  impure;  whereas,  if  it  had 
contained  any  oxygen,  the  quantity  would  have  been  in- 
creased, and  it  would  have  been  purer  than  common  air; 
as  when  red  precipitate,  or  minium,  is  treated  in  the  same 
manner.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  it  contained  no 
oxygen,  but  a  quantity  of  phlogiston,  on  the  expulsion  of 
which,  and  the  imbibing  of  pure  air,  it  became  flower  of 
zinc. 

This  experiment  is  rather  more  decisive  than  the  similar 
one  with  iron,  because  the  black  powder  to  which  zinc  is 
reduced  can  be  affected  by  heat  in  common  air,  which 
finery  cinder  cannot. 

I  have  been  in  expectation  of  hearing  from  Mr.  Berthol- 
let,  and  the  other  chemists  in  France  to  whom  my  first 
publication  on  this  subject  was  addressed;  but  as  there  is 
now  no  communication  between  this  country  and  that, 
I  shall  be  glad  to  proceed  in  the  discussion  of  the  ques- 
tion with  Dr.  Maclean  and  other  chemists  on  this  conti- 
nent. I  shall  attend  with  candour  to  anything  that  they 
shall  suggest,  and  freely  acknowledge  any  mistakes  or 
oversights  into  which  I  may  have  been  betrayed,  but  I 
hope  it  will  not  be  taken  for  granted,  that  where  the  re- 
sults of  experiments  are  differently  reported  by  the  French 
chemists  and  myself,  they  are  always  in  the  right.  An 
impartial  judge  will  see  with  his  own  eyes,  and  if  he 
have  not  the  means  of  doing  this,  he  should  not  decide 
at  all. 

I  am,  with  great  respect, 
Dear  Sir, 

Yours  sincerely, 
J.  PRIESTLEY. 

NORTHUMBERLAND,  JUNE  14,  1798. 

117 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

DEAR  SIR, — 

I  shall  be  much  obliged  to  you  if  you  will  get  the  pre- 
ceding letter  inserted  in  the  next  number  of  your  Medical 
Repository,  and  25  copies  struck  off,  and  sent  to  Mr.  Dob- 
son  for  the  use  of  my  friends,  forwarding  one  to  Benjamin 
Vaughan,  Esq.,. at  Charles  Vaughan's,  Esq.,  Boston,  and 
another  to  Dr.  Maclean. 

I  am  much  obliged  to  you  for  all  the  articles  you  sent 
in,  and  shall  give  them  an  attentive  perusal.  That  which 
relates  to  the  infectious  diseases  seems  very  interesting. 

Your  attempt  to  reconcile  the  two  theories  was  plausible 
and  well  meant,  but  I  do  not  think  they  can  be  reconciled. 

Please  to  return  my  compliments  to  Chancellor 
I  shall  be  glad  to  hear  the  result  of  his  gypsum. 

I  am  watering  some  clover  with  a  solution  of  gypsum. 
When  I  see  the  effect,  compared  with  the  common  method 
of  using  it,  I  will  inform  you.  I  expect  that  it  acts  as  a 
stimulus  only.  I  even  thought  it  might  act  by  attracting 
moisture.  If  so,  powdered  glass  may  be  useful.  I  shall 
try  that,  and  other  things. 

I  beg  to  hear  from  you  oftener,  and  am, 

Dear  Sir, 

Yours   sincerely, 
J.  PRIESTLEY. 

An  interesting  description  of  Priestley  is  given  by  Silli- 
man  in  his  diary : 

This  celebrated  gentleman  was  also  a  guest  on  one  of 
the  occasions,  when  I  dined  at  Dr.  Wistar's.  As  a  very 
young  man  (of  twenty- three  or  twenty-four),  I  felt  it  an 
honour  and  advantage  to  be  introduced  to  so  celebrated  an 
author  and  philosopher.  In  1794  he  fled  from  persecu- 
tion, and  took  refuge  with  his  family  at  Northumberland, 
Pennsylvania,  on  the  Susquehanna  River.  Here  he  re- 
sumed his  philosophical  pursuits,  and  made  occasional 

118 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

visits  to  Philadelphia.  It  was  on  one  of  these  occasions 
that  I  was  invited  to  meet  him  at  Dr.  Wistar's  table,  and 
the  interview  was  to  me  very  gratifying.  In  person  he 
was  small  and  slender,  and  in  general  outline  of  person  not 
unlike  the  late  President  Stiles  (Yale).  His  age  was  then 
about  seventy.  His  dress  was  clerical  and  perfectly  plain. 
His  manners  were  mild,  modest,  and  conciliatory;  so  that, 
although  in  controversy  a  sturdy  combatant,  he  always 
won  kind  regard  and  favour  in  his  personal  intercourse. 
At  the  dinner,  Dr.  Priestley  was,  of  course,  the  honoured 
guest,  and  there  was  no  other  except  one  gentleman  and 
myself. 

Some  of  Dr.  Priestley's  remarks  I  remember.  Speaking 
of  his  chemical  discoveries,  which  were  very  numerous, 
he  said, — "When  I  had  made  a  discovery,  I  did  not  wait 
to  perfect  it  by  a  more  elaborate  research,  but  at  once 
threw  it  out  to  the  world,  that  I  might  establish  my  claim 
before  I  was  anticipated."  He  remarked  upon  those  pas- 
sages in  the  Epistle  of  John  which  relate  to  the  Trinity, 
that  they  were  modern  interpolations,  not  being  found 
in  the  most  ancient  manuscripts.*  He  spoke  much  of 
Newton  and  his  discoveries,  and  the  beauty  and  simplicity 
of  his  character ;  and  I  think  that  he  claimed  him  as  think- 
ing in  religion  as  he  himself  did.  He  mentioned  being 
present  at  a  dinner  in  Paris  given  by  the  Count  de  Ver- 
gennes  during  the  American  Revolution,  and  the  seat  next 
to  him  was  occupied  by  a  French  nobleman.  At  another 
part  of  the  table  were  two  gentlemen  dressed  in  canonicals. 
When,  said  Dr.  Priestley,  I  inquired  of  the  nobleman  the 
names  of  these  two  gentlemen,  he  replied :  ' '  One  of  them 
is  Bishop  So-and-so,  and  the  other  Bishop  So-and-so;  but 
they  are  clever  fellows;  and,  although  they  are  bishops, 
they  don'f  believe  anything  more  of  this  mummery  of 
Christianity  than  you  or  I  do."  "Speak  for  yourself, 
sir,"  I  replied;  "for,  although  I  am  accounted  a  heretic 

*  Dr.  Priestley  doubtless  referred  to  I  John  V,  7. 

119 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

in  England,  I  do  believe  what  you  call  this  mummery  of 
Christianity.''  Dr.  Priestley,  whom  I  saw  on  various  oc- 
casions, when  invited  to  dine,  accepted  the  invitation,  but 
took  out  his  memorandum-book,  and  noted  the  engagement, 
remarking  that  he  had  now  only  an  artificial  memory. 
After  rejecting  the  doctrine  of  Phlogiston  in  early  years, 
he  resumed  it  at  a  later  period  of  life ;  and  it  was  reported 
at  Philadelphia  that  he  was  occupied  on  his  death-bed  in 
correcting  the  proof  of  a  new  pamphlet  on  that  subject. 
He  died  from  inanition,  being  unable  to  take  any  food, — 
his  digestive  powers  being  gone. 

Priestley's  fund  of  knowledge  was  all  but  boundless; 
and,  in  the  communication  and  diffusion  of  it,  he  was 
bounteous  to  profusion.  Though,  in  neither  public  or 
private  discourse  did  he  manifest  a  trait  of  what  is  called 
eloquence,  or  elegance  of  style  or  manner;  yet  he  was  one 
of  the  most  instructive  and  interesting  preachers  and  col- 
loquists. 

So  rich  was  the  doctor  in  valuable  colloquial  matter,  and 
so  bounteously  and  dexterously  did  he  impart  it,  that  I 
never  passed  half  an  hour  in  conversation  with  him  that 
did  not  add  something  to  my  stock  of  useful  knowledge. 

Added  to  his  other  amiable  and  attractive  attributes, 
Dr.  Priestley  was  one  of  the  most  single-minded  and  mod- 
est of  men.  For  the  vast  store  of  knowledge  he  possessed, 
he  took  to  himself  no  credit,  except  on  the  score  of  labor 
and  industry. 

Notwithstanding  the  charge  of  damning  theological 
heresies  that  were  piled  mountain-high  against  Dr.  Priest- 
ley, I  witnessed  in  him,  on  a  certain  occasion,  manifesta- 
tions of  mind  and  feeling  which  utterly  nullified  and 
scattered  them  to  the  wind.  I  attended  him,  in  consulta- 
tion with  Dr.  Rush,  in  a  severe  and  very  threatening  fit 
of  sickness,  when  I  greatly  feared,  and  he  himself  confi- 
dently believed,  that  he  was  on  his  death-bed.  And  never 

120 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

did  I  behold  any  individual,  in  a  like  case,  more  calm  and 
submissive  than  he  was,  under  present  suffering,  or  more 
firm  and  confiding,  peacefully  resigned  and  cheerfully 
hopeful  in  relation  to  his  condition  in  a  future  state.  ( Chas. 
Caldwell,  M.  D.  Autobiography,  1855.) 

The  death  of  Priestley  cast  a  gloom  over  all  scientific 
activity  in  the  United  States.  In  the  "Medical  Reposi- 
tory," [2]  V.  I,  the  notice  of  his  death  was  printed  and  a 
last  tribute  was  paid  him : 

"On  the  morning  of  Monday,  February  6,  1804,  this 
venerable  man  (Priestley)  paid  the  debt  of  nature,  and 
was  buried  on  the  Thursday  following  at  Northumberland, 
in  Pennsylvania,  where  he  had  lived  chiefly  since  his  ar- 
rival from  Britain.  He  had  been  affected,  as  Dr.  John  S. 
Mitchell,  of  Sunbury,  observes,  with  a  stricture  at  the 
upper  orifice  of  his  stomach  for  some  length  of  time,  which 
rendered  it  impracticable  for  him  to  swallow  any  solid 
food.  About  two  months  before  his  death  an  inflammation 
of  his  stomach  supervened,  which  had  the  effect  of  relieving 
the  stricture,  by  discharging,  at  intervals,  a  large  quantity 
of  slimy  matter.  A  little  after  this,  oedematous  swellings 
took  place  in  his  feet  and  legs;  general  debility  came  on; 
and  he  gradually  became  weaker  and  weaker,  until  death 
closed  the  scene. ' ' 

Mr.  Samuel  H.  Smith,  editor  of  the  National  Intelli- 
gencer, published  at  the  city  of  Washington,  announced 
this  affecting  event  in  the  following  respectful  terms. 

"We  have  imposed  upon  us  the  painful  duty  of  announc- 
ing the  mournful  intelligence  of  the  death  of  Joseph  Priest- 
ley, the  favourite  of  science,  the  advocate  of  civil  and  re- 
ligious liberty,  the  ornament  of  the  land  in  which  he  lived, 
and  the  pride  of  the  age  from,  which  he  received,  and  on 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

which  he  reflected  glory.  As  in  the  life  of  such  a  man 
the  world  was  interested,  so  nothing  short  of  the  tributary 
regrets  of  an  universe  can  duly  commemorate  such  departed 
greatness.  For  one,  the  editor  of  this  paper  challenges 
from  those  who  occupy  the  sphere  of  its  circulation  the 
solemn  admiration  merited  by  him  whose  career  of  ter- 
restrial glory  has  drawn  to  a  close  without  having  been 
tarnished  by  the  minutest  reproach.  It  were  vain  to  at- 
tempt, in  this  necessarily  concise  notice,  to  delineate  a 
character  so  fertile  of  intellectual  powers  as  that  of  Priest- 
ley. Few  of  the  subjects  in  which  mankind  are  the  most 
interested  escaped  the  pen  of  a  writer,  the  philanthropy 
of  whose  heart  never  slept.  There  was  scarcely  a  depart- 
ment of  natural  science  not  improved  or  enlightened  by 
his  research,  and  the  creative  power  of  his  genius;  and 
politics  and  theology,  in  their  widest  range,  seemed  almost 
too  limited  for  faculties  at  once  patient  and  profound. 
His  associates  in  science  will  seize  the  occasion  to  manifest 
that  whatever  insensibility  to  merit  may  sometimes  un- 
fortunately attach  to  the  political  world,  the  warmest 
gratitude  invariably  embalms  the  memory  of  those  who 
have  eminently  distinguished  themselves  in  the  walks  of 
philosophy.  To  the  American  Philosophical  Society,  whose 
annals  are  brightened  by  his  labours,  we  look  for  the 
memorial  of  his  greatness. ' ' 

At  a  special  meeting  of  the  American  Philosophical  So- 
ciety, held  at  their  hall  the  24th  February,  Benjamin  S. 
Barton,  M.  D.  was  duly  elected  to  deliver  an  eulogium  on 
the  Rev.  Dr.  Joseph  Priestley. 

11  'His  principal  occupation  through  life,'  says  one  of 
his  friends,  'was  to  propagate  the  evidences  of  the  truth 
of  Christianity,  and  the  belief  of  the  one  true  God,  as 
revealed  by  the  divine  mission  of  Jesus  Christ. 

"  'As  a  metaphysician,  he  stands  foremost  among  those 
who  have  attempted  the  investigation  of  the  abstruse  con- 
troversies in  this  department  of  literature.  The  question 

122 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

of  liberty  and  necessity,  imperfectly  understood  by  the 
ancients,  and  on  which  Bradwardine  first  threw  a  ray  of 
scholastic  light,  was  hardly  understood  by  Hobbes,  and 
Leibnitz,  and  Zanchius,  and  Jackson,  and  Clarke.  Priest- 
ley was  the  first  man  who  introduced  into  notice  the  im- 
mortal Hartley,  and  reduced  the  question  itself  within  the 
comprehension  of  common  understandings.  When  to  his 
publications  on  this  subject  are  added  his  disquisitions  on 
matter  and  spirit,  he  ranks,  beyond  controversy,  as  the 
first  metaphysician  of  the  present  age. 

"  'As  a  politician,  he  has  assiduously  and  successfully 
laboured,  not  merely  to  prepare  the  minds  of  his  former 
countrymen  of  Great  Britain  to  adopt  those  gradual  and 
salutary  reforms  in  their  own  system  of  government,  which 
the  democratic  part  of  it  so  obviously  requires,  but  to 
extend  and  illustrate  those  general  principles  of  civil  lib- 
erty which  are  happily  the  foundation  of  the  constitution 
of  his  adopted  country. 

' '  '  His  profound  attention  to  the  belles  lettres,  and  to  the 
other  departments  of  general  literature,  has  been  success- 
fully exemplified  among  his  other  writings,  by  his  lectures 
on  oratory  and  criticism,  and  on  general  history  and 
policy. 

:  '  Of  the  most  important  and  fashionable  study  of  Pneu- 
matic Chemistry,  he  may  fairly  be  said  to  be  the  father. 
His  discoveries  of  the  various  gases,  which  his  writings 
first  announced  to  the  world,  exceed  not  merely  in  number, 
but  in  importance,  even  those  of  the  illustrious  Scheele,  of 
Sweden,  and  the  French  Lavoisier. 

"  'He  has  contributed  to  make  the  present  generation  of 
readers  think  and  investigate  beyond  any  writer  of  his 
day.  His  life  is  closed.  He  has  lived  and  died  an  example 
of  the  sublime  simplicity  of  character,  which  has  never 
been  attendant  but  on  the  first-rate  abilities,  uniformly 
exerted  for  the  benefit  of  mankind.' 

"Since  his  illness  in  Philadelphia,  in  the  year  1801,  he 

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never  regained  his  former  good  state  of  health.  His  com- 
plaint was  constant  indigestion,  and  a  difficulty  of  swal- 
lowing food  of  any  kind.  But,  during  this  period  of  gen- 
eral debility  he  was  busily  employed  in  printing  his 
Church  History,  and  the  first  volume  of  his  Notes  on  the 
Scriptures,  and  in  making  new  and  original  experiments. 
During  this  period,  likewise,  he  wrote  his  pamphlet  of 
Jesus  and  Socrates  compared,  and  reprinted  his  Essay  on 
Phlogiston. 

"From  about  the  beginning  of  November,  1803,  to  the 
middle  of  January,  1804,  his  complaint  grew  more  serious ; 
yet,  by  judicious  medical  treatment,  and  strict  attention  to 
diet,  he,  after  some  time,  seemed,  if  not  gaining  strength, 
at  least  not  getting  worse;  and  his  friends  fondly  hoped 
that  his  health  would  continue  to  improve  as  the  season 
advanced.  He,  however,  considered  his  life  as  very  pre- 
carious. Even  at  this  time,  besides  his  miscellaneous  read- 
ing, which  was  at  all  times  extensive,  he  read  through  all 
the  works  quoted  in  his  comparison  of  the  different  sys- 
tems of  the  Grecian  philosophers  with  Christianity;  com- 
posed that  work,  and  transcribed  the  whole  of  it,  in  less 
than  three  months ;  so  that  he  has  left  it  ready  for  the  press. 
During  this  period  he  composed,  in  one  day,  his  second 
Reply  to  Dr.  Linn. 

"In  the  last  fortnight  of  January  his  fits  of  indigestion 
became  more  alarming,  his  legs  swelled,  and  his  weakness 
increased.  Within  two  days  of  his  death  he  became  so 
weak  that  he  could  walk  but  a  little  way,  and  that  with 
great  difficulty;  for  some  time  he  found  himself  unable 
to  speak;  but  on  recovering  a  little,  he  told  his  friends 
that  he  had  never  felt  more  pleasantly  during  his  whole 
life-time,  than  during  the  time  he  was  unable  to  speak. 
He  was  fully  sensible  that  he  had  not  long  to  live,  yet 
talked  with  cheerfulness  to  all  who  called  on  him.  In  the 
course  of  the  day  he  expressed  his  thankfulness  at  being 
permitted  to  die  quietly  in  his  family,  without  pain,  and 

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CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

with  every  convenience  and  comfort  that  he  could  wish 
for.  He  dwelt  upon  the  peculiarly  happy  situation  in 
which  it  had  pleased  the  Divine  Being  to  place  him  in  life, 
and  the  great  advantage  he  had  enjoyed  in  the  acquaint- 
ance and  friendship  of  some  of  the  best  and  wisest  of  men 
in  the  age  in  which  he  lived,  and  the  satisfaction  he  de- 
rived from  having  led  an  useful  as  well  as  happy  life. 
He  this  day  gave  directions  about  printing  the  remainder 
of  his  Notes  on  Scripture  (a  work  in  the  completion  of 
which  he  was  much  interested),  and  looked  over  the  first 
sheet  of  the  third  volume,  after  it  was  corrected  by  those 
who  were  to  attend  to  its  completion,  and  expressed  his 
satisfaction  at  the  manner  of  its  being  executed. 

"On  Sunday,  the  5th,  he  was  much  weaker,  but  sat  up 
in  an  arm  chair  for  a  few  minutes.  He  desired  that  John 
XI.  might  be  read  to  him.  He  stopped  the  reader  at  the 
45th  verse,  dwelt  for  some  time  on  the  advantage  he  had 
derived  from  reading  the  scriptures  daily,  and  recom- 
mended this  practice,  saying,  that  it  would  prove  a  source 
of  the  purest  pleasure.  'We  shall  all',  said  he,  'meet  fin- 
ally :  we  only  require  different  degrees  of  discipline,  suited 
to  our  different  tempers,  to  prepare  us  for  final  happiness. ' 

Mr. coming  into  his  room,  he  said,  'You  see,  Sir,  I 

am  still  living. '  Mr.  -  —  observed  that  he  would  always 
live.  '  Yes,  I  believe  I  shall ;  we  shall  meet  again  in  another 
and  better  world. '  He  said  this  with  great  animation,  lay- 
ing hold  of  Mr. 's  hand  in  both  of  his  own.  After 

evening  prayers,  when  his  grand-children  were  brought  to 
his  bed-side,  he  spoke  to  them  separately,  and  exhorted 
them  to  continue  to  love  each  other,  &c.  'I  am  going,' 
added  he,  '  to  sleep  as  well  as  you ;  for  death  is  only  a  good 
long  sound  sleep  in  the  grave ;  and  we  shall  meet  again. ' 

"On  Monday  morning,  the  6th  of  February,  on  being 
asked  how  he  did,  he  answered,  in  a  faint  voice,  that  he  had 
no  pain;  but  appeared  fainting  away  gradually.  About 
eight  o'clock  he  desired  to  have  three  pamphlets,  which 

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CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

had  been  looked  out  by  his  directions  the  evening  before. 
He  then  dictated,  as  clearly  and  distinctly  as  he  had  ever 
done  in  his  life,  the  additions  and  alterations  which  he 

wished  to  have  made  in  each.  Mr.  took  down  the 

substance  of  what  he  said,  which  was  read  to  him.  He 
observed,  'Sir,  you  have  put  it  in  your  own  language;  I 
wish  it  to  be  in  mine. '  He  then  repeated  over  again,  nearly 
word  for  word,  what  he  had  before  said ;  and  when  it  was 
transcribed,  and  read  over  to  him,  he  said,  l  That  is  right ; 
I  have  now  done/ 

"  About  half  an  hour  after  he  desired  that  he  might  be 
removed  to  a  cot.  About  ten  minutes  after  he  was  re- 
moved to  it  he  died;  but  breathed  his  last  so  easily,  that 
those  who  were  sitting  close  to  him  did  not  immediately 
perceive  it.  He  had  put  his  hand  to  his  face,  which  pre- 
vented them  from  observing  it. 

"He  was  born  March  24,  1733. 

"Perhaps  no  man  was  ever  more  conscious  of  the  ap- 
proach of  death  than  Dr.  Priestley,  or  made  more  exact 
arrangements  for  that  solemn  event.  In  one  of  his  let- 
ters to  Dr.  Mitchill,  dated  January  9,  1802,  he  expressed 
himself  thus: — 'I  am  at  present  very  much  behind-hand  in 
'philosophical  intelligence,  by  which  I  suffer  much.  In 
winter  also  I  am  not  fond  of  going  much  into  my  labora- 
tory, so  that  I  do  very  little  in  the  way  of  experiments  at 
present,  though  in  other  respects  I  am  not  quite  idle.  I 
feel,  however,  the  effect  of  years,  and  I  am  by  no  means  so 
active  as  I  have  been.  Neither  have  I  recovered  from  the 
effects  of  the  fever  that  I  had  in  Philadelphia.  I  am  much 
weaker  and  thinner,  and  this,  I  fancy,  has  in  some  measure 
been  the  cause  of  the  ague  I  have  had  lately,  and  which  I 
never  had  before/ 

1 '  His  attachment  to  the  administration  under  Mr.  Jeffer- 
son was  strong  and  ardent.  In  another  letter  to  Dr. 
Mitchill,  of  January  8,  1803,  he  has  this  paragraph: — 'I 
think  myself  much  honoured  by  the  respectful  mention  of 

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CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

me  by  your  friends  in  Congress,  and  could  wish,  to  pay 
them  a  visit ;  but  at  my  time  of  life,  the  inconvenience  of  a 
journey  at  this  season  of  the  year  would  be  too  great 
for  me.  As  to  the  chaplainship  to  Congress,  I  should  not 
think  of  it.  They  have  my  best  wishes,  and  prayers  too, 
without  any  salary.  I  rejoice  in  the  present  aspect  of 
public  affairs,  and  hope  it  will  be  long  continued.  Our 
excellent  President  will,  I  doubt  not,  put  war  and  every 
other  evil  as  far  as  he  can  from  us.' 

"On  the  25th  January,  a  few  days  before  his  death,  he 
wrote  the  following  to  Dr.  Logan: — 'By  means  of  various 
illnesses  I  am  reduced  to  a  state  of  extreme  debility;  and 
if  the  swelling  that  began  at  my  feet,  which  has  now 
reached  my  knees,  should  continue  to  advance  as  it  has 
done,  my  continuance  here  cannot  be  long.  But  I  have 
lived  a  little  beyond  the  usual  term  of  human  life,  and 
am  content  and  thankful.  Few  persons,  I  believe,  have 
enjoyed  life  more  than  I  have  done. 

"Tell  Mr.  Jefferson  that  I  think  myself  happy  to  have 
lived  so  long  under  his  excellent  administration,  and  that  I 
have  a  prospect  of  dying  in  it.  It  is,  I  am  confident,  the 
best  on  the  face  of  the  earth,  and  yet,  I  hope,  to  rise  to 
something  more  excellent  still.' 

' '  To  those  who  are  desirous  of  tracing  the  scientific  prog- 
ress of  Dr.  Priestley,  since  his  arrival  in  America,  it  may 
be  matter  of  pleasing  information  to  learn,  that  a  very 
large  part  of  his  publications  on  these  subjects  are  con- 
tained either  in  their  original  forms,  or  in  review,  in  the 
first  Hexade  of  the  Medical  Repository." 


T 


CHAPTER  VI 

IHOMAS  COOPER  (1759-1841),  a  graduate  of  Uni- 
versity College,  Oxford,  and  a  gentleman  of  wide 
learning,  followed  Priestley  to  this  country.  He  had  been 
attracted  to  the  scientist  in  England  and  was  not  in  sym- 
pathy with  the  oppression  that  was  visited  upon  Priest- 
ley. 

Cooper  was  elected  to  the  professorship  of  chemistry 
and  mineralogy  in  Dickinson  College,  Pa.  Very  definite 
religious  views,  opposed  to  so-called  free  thought,  were  en- 
tertained by  that  institution.  A  number  of  the  Trustees 
hesitated  to  vote  for  Cooper,  but  Benjamin  Rush,  one  of 
them,  insisted  upon  his  election.  He  spent  three  years  as 
professor  of  chemistry  and  mineralogy  at  Dickinson  Col- 
lege. While  there  he  gave  to  the  College  the  glass  used, 
by  the  discoverer  of  oxygen,  to  focus  the  sun's  rays  on 
"red  precipitate, "  and  other  apparatus  originally  owned 
by  Joseph  Priestley. 

He  came  to  Philadelphia  in  1815 ;  and  the  following  year 
»    was  elected  to  the  Chair  of  Chemistry  and  Mineralogy  in 
the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  where  he  taught  for  four 
years. 

In  1811,  he  published  a  paper  entitled  "An  Account  of 
the  Decomposition  of  Potash  and  the  Production  of  Potas- 
sium by  Heat."  He  carried  out  the  work  in  Priestley's 
Laboratory  at  Northumberland. 

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THOMAS  COOPER 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

It  is  probably  the  first  time  that  potassium  was  made  in 
this  country.  A  letter  sent  by  Cooper  to  his  son-in-law,  in 
which  his  experiments  were  described,  is  interesting  and 
well  deserves  a  place  among  these  early  writings : 

DISCOVERY  OF  A  NEW  METAL,  POTASSIUM. 

MR.  EDITOR: 

Having  just  received  from  my  father-in-law,  Judge 
Cooper,  of  Northumberland  (unanimously  chosen  a  short 
time  ago,  Chemical  Professor  at  the  College  of  Carlisle), 
an  account  of  the  first  successful  attempt  at  making  the 
new  metal  POTASSIUM  in  this  country,  I  send  it  to  you ;  be- 
lieving many  of  your  readers  will  feel  interested  in  the 
detail  of  an  experiment  so  beautiful,  as  well  as  so  im- 
portant to  the  theory  of  Chemistry, 

I  am,  sir,  your  obedient  servant, 

J.  MANNERS. 

Extract  of  a  letter  from  Judge  Cooper  of  Northumber- 
land to  Dr.  Manners  of  this  city  (Philadelphia). 

NORTHUMBERLAND,  June  28,  1811. 
DEAR  SIR: 

About  a  fortnight  ago,  Mr.  Reuben  Haines  of  Philadel- 
phia, brought  me  a  few  small  pieces  of  POTASSIUM,  which 
Mr.  W.  Hembell  was  so  kind  as  to  send  me;  he  procured 
them  from  Mr.  Johns,  who  had  repeatedly  made  it,  as  I 
understand,  at  Mr.  Davy's  laboratory  at  the  Royal  Insti- 
tute in  London,  from  whence  he  brought  some  to  Philadel- 
phia. Mr.  Johns,  in  company  with  Dr.  Coxe,  attempted  to 
make  it  at  Dr.  Coxe's  laboratory,  but  owing  to  some  acci- 
dent, the  experiment  did  not  succeed:  probably  Dr.  Coxe 
has  succeeded  ere  this;  as  a  failure  in  the  first  repetition 
of  a  chemical  experiment,  is  too  common  to  furnish  any 
ground  of  discouragement.  The  phenomena  afforded  by 
this  substance  were  so  pleasing  and  so  extraordinary  that 

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CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

I  was  tempted  to  take  a  few  days  from  my  translation  of 
JUSTINIAN,  and  devote  them  to  the  making  of  POTASSIUM. 
On  perusing  the  account  given  of  the  method  of  making 
potassium  at  the  Royal  Institute,  in  25  Nich.  Jour.  191, 
and  Mr.  John's  variation  of  the  Apparatus  in  35  Till- 
och's  Phil.  Mag.  321,  I  preferred  the  latter.  See  the  plate. 
Having  picked  out  a  gun  barrel  from  Dr.  Priestley's  lab- 
oratory, I  gave  it  to  an  ingenious  workman  here  (Jas. 
Macklay)  to  cut  and  bend.  The  barrel  was  not  thick,  and 
he  tried  to  give  the  required  curve  by  filling  it  with  melted 
lead,  but  that  did  not  succeed.  It  was  bent  by  gradual 
heating  and  hammering.  In  bending,  it  cracked. 

I  took  another,  which  was  also  bent  according  to  the 
drawing  I  send  you.  The  piece  cut  off  was  accurately  filed 
and  ground  with  emery  and  pumice,  to  fit  the  sloping  end 
of  the  curved  piece  which  projected  beyond  the  furnace. 
Not  being  able  in  this  little  town  to  find  any  clean  iron 
filings  or  turnings,  I  made  the  man  patiently  chip  some  soft 
iron  in  small  pieces  sufficient  to  fill  the  curvature  of  the 
gun  barrel.  The  straight  piece  (or  alonge)  with  the  brass 
cock  and  tube  was  adjusted,  the  joint  luted,  the  curvature 
raised  to  a  white  heat,  and  the  breeching  end  of  the  gun 
barrel,  which  also  projected  out  of  the  furnace  about  five 
inches,  was  made  red  hot  with  coals  surrounding  it,  sup- 
ported by  a  piece  of  sheet  iron.  About  an  ounce  of  the 
causticum  commune  fortius,  very  carefully  prepared  by 
myself  for  the  purpose,  was  inserted  at  the  larger  end  of 
the  barrel,  the  screw  of  the  breeching  was  then  put  in  and 
luted,  and  the  end  of  the  glass  tube  inserted  in  a  basin 
of  oil.  The  heat  was  kept  up  for  about  half  an  hour.  The 
apparatus  left  to  cool;  when  opened,  the  alkali  was  found 
distilled  over  unchanged,  and  not  the  slightest  appearances 
of  potassium.  On  examining  the  gun  barrel,  three  small 
holes  were  found,  either  burnt  by  the  fire,  or  occasioned  by 
some  imperfection  in  the  gun  barrel  itself. 

I  took  another  gun  barrel  and  treated  it  the  same  way, 

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CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

but  on  examining  after  the  curvature  was  made,  it  was 
found  also  to  have  some  flaws. 

I  procured  the  gun  smith  to  pick  me  out  a  thick  heavy 
barrel  not  yet  bored  for  a  rifle.  It  was  bent,  cut,  and 
treated  like  the  others.  The  curved  part  within  the  furnace 
was  filled  with  iron  cuttings  and  turnings.  The  strait  piece 
or  alonge,  was  ground  to  fit  the  end  of  the  curved  piece: 
but  during  the  operation  it  was  found  not  to  be  quite  tight : 
yet  as  it  was  well  luted,  the  experiment  was  allowed  to 
proceed.  The  same  process  was  begun  and  continued  as 
before:  the  apparatus  cooled;  taken  to  pieces;  examined; 
the  alkali  was  distilled  over,  but  no  potassium !  In  all  the 
cases  much  hydrogen  gas  escaped  at  the  end  of  the  tube 
immersed  in  the  oil,  but  at  no  period  of  the  operation  was 
there  any  absorption;  which  convinced  me,  the  apparatus 
was  not  tight  enough  in  its  separate  parts. 

I  had  the  alonge  again  ground  more  accurately,  and 
though  Mr.  Johns  says  this  is  enough  if  air-tight,  which 
mine  always  was,  I  had  it  when  well  adjusted  by  means  of 
grinding,  still  firmer  fixed  by  three  small  screws,  which  I 
take  to  be  a  necessary  precaution.  The  curved  part  was 
filled  (instead  of  iron  cuttings)  with  a  faggot  of  small 
clean  iron  wire  as  thick  as  we  could  introduce;  the  ap- 
paratus was  refitted;  I  made  with  great  care  a  fresh  por- 
tion of  caustic  alkali,  and  the  process  recommenced.  On 
cooling  and  examining  the  apparatus,  the  alkali  had  dis- 
tilled over,  and  on  the  external  surface  of  it,  slight  but  un- 
equivocal signs  of  potassium  appeared. 

I  again  repeated  the  experiment  next  day  (June  24),  sub- 
stituting iron  wire,  clipped  into  pieces  of  about  the  eighth 
of  an  inch  long,  of  which  about  half  a  pound  was  necessary 
to  fill  the  curve  of  the  barrel  within  the  furnace.  The 
white  heat  was  carefully  given  to  the  barrel  within  the 
furnace,  which  was  again  filled  up  with  charcoal.  The 
breeching  end  on  the  outside  was  made  red  hot ;  the  alkali, 
very  dry,  was  inserted  at  twice,  and  two  or  three  minutes 

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CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

of  interval  allowed  for  the  hydrogen  gas,  arising  from  the 
decomposed  moisture,  to  burn  away.  The  whole  being  put 
in,  the  screw  of  the  breeching  was  luted  with  fat  lute  (lime 
and  boiled  oil) ;  so  was  the  joint  where  the  alonge  was 
screwed  into  the  end  of  the  curved  barrel,  and  the  joint 
where  the  brass  cock  was  inserted  into  the  alonge,  and  the 
place  where  the  glass  tube  was  inserted  into  the  brass  cock. 
The  heat  was  kept  up  strongly  for  a  full  half  hour.  On 
cooling  the  apparatus,  potassium,  in  its  most  perfect  state, 
was  found  within  and  without  side  the  small  internal  tube, 
and  in  the  end  of  the  gun  barrel  next  the  wire. 

I  obtained  about  as  much  as  filled  at  least  one  fourth  of 
an  ounce  vial.  Some  of  it  took  fire  in  the  air,  and  some  I 
used  before  I  had  collected  the  whole. 

It  was  of  the  colour  and  lustre  of  pure  silver  on  the  out- 
side :  on  being  cut  it  was  equally  metallic,  but  rather  more 
blue  and  mercurial  internally.  It  was  soft  and  could  be  cut 
and  spread  very  easily. 

It  decomposed  water  with  a  very  vivid  pink-coloured 
flame,  moving  on  the  surface  with  a  rapid  irregular  gyra- 
tory motion. 

I  had  not  sufficient  of  naphtha,  to  cover  the  one  half  of 
it :  therefore  I  put  it  first  into  olive  oil :  in  this  it  sank  with 
some  difficulty:  streams  of  air  issued  from  it,  and  occa- 
sioned a  strong  frothing  in  the  oil;  wherein  it  was  gradu- 
ally decomposed. 

It  sank  in  spirits  of  turpentine.  A  stream  of  gas  issued 
from  each  piece;  the  liquid  was  turned  of  a  brown  colour 
and  become  opaque;  the  metal  in  about  three  hours  was 
decomposed,  leaving  the  same  kind  of  thin  metallic  grains 
which  are  seen  when  it  is  decomposed  in  water,  and  which, 
for  the  present,  I  agree  with  Mr.  Haines  in  supposing  to  be 
the  particles  of  iron  combined  with  the  metalline  potassium. 
The  spirits  of  turpentine  are  partially  converted  into  a 
soap,  forming  an  opaque  milky  mixture  with  common 
water.  I  put  the  larger  portion  in  the  vial  sent  me  by  Mr. 

132 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

Hembell,  which  contained  a  small  quantity  of  naphtha, 
whether  enough  to  preserve  the  metal  tolerably  pure  till 
he  receives  it  in  the  city,  I  know  not. 

Mr.  Reuben  Haines  was  so  good  as  to  assist  me  through- 
out these  experiments.  I  have  been  thus  minute  in  detail- 
ing my  want  of  success,  because  such  a  detail  may  serve 
to  put  others  on  their  guard,  and  save  time  and  expense. 
For  the  same  reason,  I  shall  state  the  precautions  I  took 
in  making  the  caustic  alkali,  which  I  had  to  prepare  three 
times  for  this  operation.  Perfectly  pure  alkali  I  find  sells 
in  London  for  eight  times  the  price  of  the  common  caustic, 
but  whether  it  be  made  by  repeated  crystallizations  of  the 
carbonat,  by  Lowitz's  or  by  solution  in  alcohol  after  Ber- 
thollet's  method,  I  know  not.  The  latter  is  certainly  not 
pure  alkali,  as  it  has  been  ascertained  that  it  will  not 
saturate  an  equal  quantity  of  acid,  with  good  caustic  alkali 
well  prepared  in  the  common  way. 

I  took  one  and  a  half  or  two  pounds  of  lime  burnt  in 
the  common  way ;  I  burnt  it  over  again  in  a  black  lead  cru- 
cible in  a  strong  red  heat  for  four  hours :  I  weighed  equal 
weights  of  this  lime  while  hot,  and  clean  white  pearl  ash 
bruised  tolerably  fine,  I  mixed  them  together  and  poured 
about  one  and  a  half  gallon  of  boiling  water  on  two  pounds 
of  the  mixture.  I  stirred  it  well,  covered  it,  and  let  it 
stand  for  two  hours.  I  then  tried  the  liquor,  which  shewed 
no  signs  of  effervescence,  with  an  acid.  The  supernatant 
solution  being  poured  off,  as  much  more  boiling  water  was 
added.  The  solution  filtered  and  evaporated  in  a  brass 
basin  (which  I  had  previously  silvered,  though  I  do  not 
know  it  was  absolutely  necessary)  was  still  further  gradu- 
ally evaporated  in  a  clean  brazed  sheet  iron  crucible,  and 
then  heated  to  a  low  red  heat,  when  the  alkali  became  fused 
without  any  signs  of  ebullition.  In  this  state  it  was  poured 
out  broken  into  small  pieces  quickly  and  bottled  while  hot. 
During  evaporation  it  attracts  carbonic  acid  from  the  at- 
mosphere, and  becomes  very  slightly  effervescent.  It  should 

133 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

be  evaporated  if  possible  in  a  sand  bath  over  a  close  fire. 
In  this  case  it  is  absolutely  necessary  the  apparatus  should 
be  set  in  such  a  place  that  the  fumes  of  the  charcoal  may  be 
carried  off.  I  spoilt  one  preparation  by  not  sufficiently  at- 
tending to  this  circumstance,  and  was  compelled  to  treat 
the  solution  with  a  fresh  portion  of  lime.  I  enter  into  this 
detail,  because  we  have  no  London  or  Paris  in  America. 
I  doubt  whether  the  common  alkaline  caustic  kept  in  the 
shops  is  sufficiently  good  and  pure,  and  an  experimenter 
here  must  depend  much  upon  his  own  resources.  The  alkali 
thus  fused  in  a  low  red  heat  still  contains,  as  I  think,  near 
20  per  cent,  of  water;  for  the  great  quantity  of  hydrogen 
gas  extricated  after  putting  in  the  alkali  can  only  proceed 
from  the  decomposition  of  the  moisture  in  the  caustic  pot- 
ash, by  means  of  iron. 

This  metal  was  first  procured  by  professor  Davy,  in  the 
progress  of  his  most  interesting  experiments  with  the  Gal- 
vanic battery.  The  method  of  procuring  it  by  means  of 
iron  we  owe,  I  believe,  to  Thenard  and  Gay-Lussac  (1808). 
Our  Dr.  Woodhouse,  before  his  death  (1809),  certainly 
decomposed  caustic  potash  by  fusing  it  in  a  closed  crucible 
with  lamp  black,  and  procured  a  substance  that  took  fire 
in  the  air.  Curadeau  in  66  "Ann.  de  Chimie"  97  (37 
Phil.  Mag.  283)  proposes  the  same  kind  of  process  without 
once  noticing  the  experiment  of  Dr.  Woodhouse.* 

The  following  are  the  different  kinds  of  apparatus  yet 
contrived  for  distilling  pure  potash  over  iron. 

Fig.  1.  The  apparatus  used  at  the  Royal  Institute.  25 
Nich.  Jour.  191. 

A  common  gun  barrel,  very  clean  inside,  has  an  iron  re- 
ceptacle A  ground  into  one  end  of  it  and  furnished  with 
a  ground  stopper,  capable  of  holding  2  or  3  ounces  of  fused 
potash.  Clean  iron  turnings  are  placed  in  the  curve  at  D, 
and  brought  to  a  white  heat.  The  potassium  distils  over 

*  He  evidently  did  this  before  Gay-Lussac  and  Thenard  published 
their  method,  and  deserves  recognition  for  his  effort. 

134 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

at  B,  which  is  kept  cool.  Common  air  is  excluded  by  a 
glass  tube  C,  which  supports  a  column  of  mercury.  The 
tube  is  cut  to  get  at  the  potassium. 

Fig.  2.  Mr.  Johns 's  apparatus,  by  which  the  tube  is 
saved,  and  the  experiment  may  be  repeated  without  de- 
stroying any  part  of  the  apparatus.  35.  Phil.  Mag.  321. 


An  iron  gun  barrel  is  cut  in  three  pieces :  the  first,  A  a ; 
the  second  forms  the  curve  a  L ;  the  other  is  the  strait  piece 
or  alonge  G.  This  is  fitted  to  L,  by  accurately  grinding  the 
one  end  to  fit  into  the  projection  of  the  curved  barrel.  M 
is  a  stop  cock,  I  a  glass  tube,  K  a  small  basin  containing 
olive  oil.  H  is  a  tube  of  sheet  iron,  about  six  inches  long, 
one  half  of  which  is  inserted  in  the  curved  part  L,  and  the 
other  in  the  strait  part  of  the  barrel  G,  before  they  are 

135 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

fitted  to  each  other.  The  potassium  distils  into  this,  and  is 
more  easily  collected  than  if  the  barrels  alone  were  used. 
The  furnace  is  an  eight  inch  black  lead  crucible,  urged  with 
a  bellows.  Of  which  the  nozzle  is  shewn  at  F.  B  is  the 
stopper  to  A,  which  is  the  receptacle  of  the  pure  potash.  A 
is  kept  cool  till  D  is  at  a  white  heat.  G  is  kept  cool  during 
the  whole  operation,  to  condense  the  potassium.  As  soon 
as  absorption  appears  in  the  end  of  the  glass  tube  im- 
mersed in  oil,  turn  the  cock  at  M. 

Fig.  3.  The  apparatus  which  I  used,  as  fixed  in  a  port- 
able air-furnace,  nine  and  a  quarter  inches  internal  diame- 
ter in  the  widest  part. 

A,  the  furnace,  with  a  hole  in  the  upper  part  to  feed  the 
fire,  and  a  hole  below  for  the  ash  hole  and  draught.     It 
consists  of  two  parts,  one  placed  on  top  of  the  other  where 
the  gun  barrel  appears  outside.    It  stands  on  an  iron  tripod. 

B,  the  place  where  the  strait  tube  is  joined  to  the  curved 
tube,  by  accurate  grinding  the  one  with  the  other,  then 
fastening  them  with  three  small  screws,  and  luting  with 
fat  lute  to  exclude  all  chance  of  moisture. 

C,  the  thick  or  breeching  end  of  the  gun  barrel,  in  which 
the  caustic  alkali  is  put,  at  twice. 

D,  the  common  screw  of  the  breeching  of  the  gun  barrel ; 
when  all  the  alkali  is  in  and  begins  to  flow,  fix  the  screw  in 
a  hand  vice,  and  put  it  in  its  place. 

E,  the  small  brass  cock,  inserted  in  the  strait  iron  tube 
by  means  of  a  cork,  and  then  luted  with  fat  lute  on  a 
strip  of  linen  and  tied. 

F,  the  place  where  the  glass  tube  is  inserted  into  the 
nose  of  the  brass  cock  by  means  of  a  cork,  perforated  by  a 
hot  iron  the  size  of  the  tube.     Smear  it  before  insertion 
with  a  little  fat  lute,  and  fix  it  tight  with  some  tow. 

G,  a  small  basin,  containing  about  half  a  pint  or  more  of 
olive  oil. 

H,  a  brazed  sheet  iron  tube  inserted  at  B,  half  in  one 
barrel  and  half  in  the  other ;  6  inches  long.  The  strait  tube 

136 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

may  be  kept  cool  by  a  damp  cloth  repeatedly  employed 
between  E  and  B.  It  may  be  supported  by  a  piece  of  board 
underneath  resting  on  the  ground.  Take  care  no  water 
runs  down  to  the  cock  or  into  the  basin. 

When  the  absorption  begins  in  the  glass  tube,  after  all 
the  hydrogen  is  expelled,  turn  the  cock  and  prevent  the  oil 
from  rising  more  than  half  way  up  the  tube. 

Upon  the  whole  Johns 's  is  the  cheapest  apparatus.  The 
labour  of  bending  and  grinding  and  fitting  the  gun  barrel, 
and  the  gun  barrel  itself,  is  lost  each  time  in  Mr.  Davy's 
method,  which  in  this  country  cannot  be  an  expense  each 
time  of  much  less  than  one  and  a  half  dollars. 

Cooper  was  the  editor  of  Thomas  Thomson's  "System 
of  Chemistry. "  He  had  learned  in  France  the  secret  of 
making  chlorine  from  common  salt  and  attempted  to  be- 
come a  calico  bleacher  in  Manchester,  England,  afterward 
a  printer,  but  he  was  not  successful  at  either  occupation. 
He  was  a  lawyer  before  he  began  his  career  as  a  chemist  at 
Carlisle,  Pennsylvania. 

In  1816,  he  delivered  a  lecture  on  the  "Importance  of 
Chemistry  to  the  Medical  Man."  Cooper  had  at  this  time 
been  made  Professor  of  Chemistry  in  the  college  depart- 
ment of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  and  Robert  Hare 
had  been  chosen  for  the  chair  of  Chemistry  in  the  medical 
department.  The  faculty  of  the  medical  department  saw 
no  imperative  need  of  the  science  of  chemistry  in  a  medical 
student's  curriculum;  but,  if  the  subject  must  be  taught, 
the  professor  did  not  require  a  knowledge  of  medicine. 
Hare,  therefore,  was  satisfactory  to  them.  He,  however, 
was  not  to  pass  the  students  in  his  branch.  The  chemistry 
examination  was  to  be  given  by  Hare  in  the  presence  of 
two  or  more  of  the  professors  of  medicine,  and  they  were 

137 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

to  decide  the  candidate's  mark.  Thomas  Cooper  took  ex- 
ception to  this  attitude  toward  the  subject  of  chemistry, 
and,  in  the  lecture  referred  to,  declared  that  chemistry 
was  of  the  utmost  importance  to  medical  men,  and  pro- 
ceeded to  show  that  all  of  the  secretions  of  the  body  are 
explained  by  chemical  processes.  Chemistry  was  strongly 
defended  by  the  lecturer,  before  the  faculty  and  students 
of  the  Medical  School  of  the  University,  and  Cooper  suc- 
ceeded in  convincing  his  hearers  of  their  error. 

But  Cooper  was  not  only  a  writer  on  chemical  topics — 
every  one  recalls  the  remarkable  sentence  that  Abraham 
Lincoln  used  in  his  speech  at  Gettysburg,  "for  the  people, 
by  the  people,"  etc. 

In  the  Outlook  some  years  ago  there  appeared  the  fol- 
lowing: "Although  much  has  been  written  about  Presi- 
dent Lincoln's  Gettysburg  address,  it  may  not  be  amiss, 
even  at  this  late  day,  to  cite  an  early  authority  for  the 
phrase,  'government  of  the  people,  by  the  people,  and  for 
the  people. '  It  is  found  on  page  53  of  a  book  bearing  the 
title:  'Some  Information  Respecting  America,  Collected 
by  Thomas  Cooper,  Late  of  Manchester,  London:  1794.' 
Most  of  its  contents  were  reproduced  in  Volume  III  of  'An 
Historical,  Geographical,  Commercial,  and  Philosophical 
View  of  the  American  United  States  and  of  the  European 
Settlements  in  America  and  the  West  Indies, '  a  bulky  but 
once  popular  compilation,  in  four  volumes,  by  W.  Winter- 
botham,  published  in  London  in  1795  and  sold  in  the 
United  States. " 

The  extract  referred  to,  entirely  aside  from  its  use  of  this 
phrase,  is  not  devoid  of  interest  as  a  description  of  political 
and  social  conditions.  It  runs  as  follows: 

138 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

There  is  little  fault  to  find  with  the  government  of 
America,  either  in  principle  or  in  practice:  we  have  very 
few  taxes  to  pay,  and  those  of  acknowledged  necessity,  and 
moderate  in  amount :  we  have  no  animosities  about  religion : 
it  is  a  subject  about  which  no  questions  are  asked :  we  have 
few  respecting  political  men  or  political  measures :  the  pres- 
ent irritation  in  men 's  minds  in  Great  Britain,  and  the  dis- 
cordant state  of  society  on  political  accounts  is  not  known 
there.  The  government  is  the  government  of  the  people 
and  for  the  people. 

In  Cooper's  original  book,  the  words  "of"  and  "for" 
are  printed  in  italics;  in  the  pirated  edition,  they  are  in 
small  capitals. 

Thomas  Cooper  had  an  interesting  and  varied  career 
and  deserves  to  be  recalled  as  one  of  our.  many  long-for- 
gotten worthies.  He  was  born  in  London,  in  1759.  From 
1811  to  1814  he  was,  as  previously  remarked,  professor  of 
chemistry  in  Dickinson  College,  at  Carlisle;  from  1816  to 
1820,  he  held  the  same  relation  to  the  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania ;  and  from  1820  to  1834,  he  was  president  of  the 
College  of  South  Carolina,  attaining  distinction  as  an 
extreme  advocate  of  the  States'  Rights  doctrine  during  the 
nullification  period.  He  died  in  Columbia,  S.  C.,  in  1841. 

Remarkable  for  the  extent  of  his  knowledge,  he  was  a 
materialist  in  philosophy  and  a  free-thinker  in  religion.  A 
voluminous  writer  on  law,  science,  medicine,  and  political 
economy,*  it  is  not  at  all  unlikely  that  his  works — current 
during  the  first  generation  of  this  century — may  have  come 
to  the  notice  of  Lincoln  as  a  young  man;  nor  would  it  be 

*  Lectures  on  the  Elements  of  Political  Economy.  By  Thomas 
Cooper,  M.  D.  Second  edition,  with  additions.  Columbia,  S.  C. 
1829. 

139 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

surprising  for  him  to  give  new  currency,  in  almost  its  exact 
form,  to  a  sentiment  written  seventy  years  before.  If  this 
supposition  be  correct,  time  will  have  brought  in  one  of  his 
revenges  by  preserving — through  the  utterance  and  massive 
influence  of  another — a  single  idea  out  of  many  put  forth 
by  a  man  who,  beginning  his  long  life  as  a  revolutionist  in 
England,  ended  it,  in  a  distant  clime,  as  the  extreme  ad- 
vocate of  States'  Rights. 

(George  F.  Parker,  Review  of  Reviews,  Vol.  23  (1901), 
p.  196.) 

In  the  autobiography  of  Charles  Caldwell  appear  the  fol- 
lowing paragraphs: 

In  talents,  attainments,  and  general  character,  Dr. 
Cooper  was  one  of  the  most  extraordinary  men  of  the  day. 
In  literature  and  science  (political  science  excepted)  his 
views  were  deep,  comprehensive  and  sound.  But,  in  poli- 
tics, so  thoroughly  were  his  notions  infected  and  perverted 
by  the  groundless  and  wild  doctrine  of  liberty  and  equality, 
that  his  benevolence  and  humanity  alone  prevented  him 
from  being  a  Jacobin. 

He  was  by  birth  and  education  an  Englishman,  and,  in 
consideration  of  his  anti-monarchical  principles,  was  elect- 
ed, during  the  period  of  the  " Reign  of  Terror"  in  Paris, 
and  took  his  seat,  as  a  member  of  the  National  Assembly  of 
France.  But  his  membership  in  that  turbulent  and  tyran- 
nical body  was  of  short  duration.  Being  of  a  temper  in 
some  degrees  fierce  and  fiery,  and  a  spirit  fearless,  haughty, 
and  incontrollable,  he  became  engaged  in  a  personal  con- 
tention with  Robespierre,  during  a  sitting  of  the  Assembly, 
in  which  the  latter  used,  in  relation  to  him,  unbecoming  and 
offensive  language.  As  soon  as  the  session  was  closed, 
Cooper  determined  on  satisfaction  for  the  insult,  sought 
the  Frenchman,  met  him  in  the  street,  pronounced  him  a 
scoundrel  (un  coquin),  drew  his  sword,  and  bade  him  de- 

140 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

fend  himself.  Robespierre  declined  the  combat,  but  pre- 
pared for  revenge  on  the  daring  Englishman.  His  design 
was  to  have  him  secretly  assassinated,  or  to  denounce  him 
in  the  next  meeting  of  the  Jacobin  Club,  where  his  influ- 
ence was  irresistible,  and  have  him  immediately  conducted 
to  the  guillotine.  Informed  of  this  by  a  friend,  who  had 
in  some  way  penetrated  the  intention  of  the  French  dema- 
gogue and  convinced  that  flight  alone  could  save  him, 
Cooper  instantly  left  Paris,  and  had  the  good  fortune  to 
escape  the  meditated  vengeance. 

On  his  return  to  England,  he  found  the  public  mind 
greatly  agitated,  and  everything  in  a  very  perturbed  con- 
dition, by  the  actual  existence  and  outrages  of  mobs  in 
various  parts  of  the  kingdom,  and  the  suspicion  and  reports 
of  plots,  insurrections,  and  concerted  rebellion.  Nor  was 
this  all.  He,  himself,  became  suspected  to  be  a  leader 
among  the  malcontents,  the  dwelling  of  his  friend  Priestley 
had  been  assailed  by  a  mob,  and  all  his  furniture  and  fine 
library  burnt ;  in  consequence  of  which,  and  the  dread  per- 
haps of  further  violence,  the  doctor  himself  was  preparing 
to  migrate,  or  had  migrated  to  the  United  States. 

Influenced  by  these  and  probably  other  considerations, 
Cooper  determined  to  exile  himself  from  his  native  country, 
whose  inhabitants,  and  himself,  as  one  of  them,  he  held  to 
be  deeply  wronged  and  oppressed,  by  a  corrupt  and  tyran- 
nical government,  and  try  his  fortune  in  a  foreign  land. 
Under  these  impressions  with  regard  to  political  control, 
and  with  "liberty  and  equality"  as  his  battle  motto,  he 
selected  the  United  States  for  his  field  of  future  action, 
and  Philadelphia,  then  our  largest  and  in  all  respects  our 
chief  city,  for  his  place  of  residence.  And  from  an  im- 
providence as  to  means,  which  made  a  part  of  his  nature, 
he  was  low  in  funds. 

Philadelphia  was  then  the  seat  of  the  National  Gov- 
ernment. Congress  was  in  session  when  Cooper  arrived, 
and  Washington,  Hamilton,  Jefferson,  Jay,  Madison,  Els- 

141 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

worth,  King,  and  many  other  distinguished  men,  statesmen, 
and  politicians  were  on  the  spot  and  in  action.  And  the 
Goddess  of  Discord  was  already  among  them,  and  had  di- 
vided them  into  the  original  parties  of  Federalist  and  Anti- 
Federalist — the  former  being  the  advocates  of  a  more  con- 
centrated and  powerful  government,  administered  and  di- 
rected by  legislators  and  officers  appointed  for  the  purpose ; 
and  the  latter  of  a  government,  with  a  basis  as  spacious 
as  the  populated  portion  of  the  Union,  of  which  every 
man,  who  wore  a  head  and  wagged  a  tongue,  was  in  part 
(and  that  part  far  from  being  inconsiderable)  a  legislator 
and  an  executive  agent. 

At  the  head  of  the  Federal  party  was  Hamilton — of 
the  Anti-Federal,  Jefferson — and  their  immediate  aids,  who 
consisted  of  the  ablest  and  most  influential  statesmen  and 
politicians  in  the  country.  Washington,  too  high,  patriotic, 
and  pure-minded,  to  be  approached  by  party  spirit,  was,  as 
his  august  title  implied,  President  of  the  United  States. 

In  this  condition  of  things,  strengthened  not  a  little 
by  his  own  pecuniary  condition,  Cooper  was  obliged  to 
look  for  a  subsistence  to  some  public  employment  connected 
with  the  profession  of  law,  to  which  he  had  been  bred ;  but 
which,  as  far  as  I  remember,  he  had  never  yet  practiced. 
And  that  he  might  the  more  readily  succeed  in  procuring 
some  appointment,  it  was  expedient  that  he  should  attach 
himself  to  one  of  the  political  parties.  Nor  was  he  long 
in  making  his  choice.  Nature  and  education  appeared  to 
have  combined  in  fitting  him  for  many  things — but  pre- 
eminently for  three — to  be  a  ''liberty  and  equality"  philoso- 
pher and  projector,  a  party  politician,  and  a  political  agita- 
tor. Hence,  he  instinctively  attached  himself  to  Jefferson 
and  the  Outs.  True,  Jefferson  was  Secretary  of  State,  and 
therefore,  officially  one  of  the  Ins.  But  in  principle,  wishes, 
and  resolution,  he  was  an  Out;  because  his  object  was  to 
supercede  Hamilton,  oust  Washington,  or  at  least  prevent 
his  re-election  to  the  office  of  Chief  Magistrate,  and  be 

142 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

promoted  to  his  place.  And  that  promotion  he  expected 
from  the  Anti-Federal  party. 

By  several  papers  which  he  wrote,  and  for  which  he  was 
probably  paid,  Cooper  was  not  long  in  convincing  his  party 
of  his  dexterity  and  strength  in  the  use  of  his  pen,  and 
therefore  of  his  power  to  aid  them  in  their  projects.  And 
to  the  employment  of  it,  chiefly,  as  there  is  reason  to  be- 
lieve, he  was  indebted  for  his  subsistence  for  several  years. 
The  State  of  Pennsylvania  being  then,  as  it  is  now,  demo- 
cratic in  its  government,  he  was  at  length  appointed  to  a 
judgeship  in  it — but  of  what  court,  or  with  what  salary,  I 
do  not  remember — if,  indeed,  I  was  ever  informed — for, 
at  that  period  my  acquaintance  with  the  judge  was  but 
slight.  His  tenure  of  the  office,  however,  did  not  prove  to 
be  either  ' '  for  life, ' '  or  until  terminated  by  promotion.  On 
account  of  some  act  regarded  as  official  malversation,  he 
was  impeached. 

But  it  is  certain  that  the  misfortune  did  not  take  from 
him  a  tittle  of  his  reputation  as  a  powerful,  a  learned,  and 
a  perfectly  upright  and  honorable  man.  His  standing  in 
society,  therefore,  and  his  connection  and  intercourse  with 
the  first  men  and  families  in  the  country,  were  untouched. 

Nor  was  it  long  until  authentic  evidence  to  the  effect 
appeared  in  his  election  to  the  Professorship  of  Chemistry 
and  Moral  Philosophy  in  Dickinson  College,  Pennsylvania. 
In  that  institution  he  remained,  by  far  its  ablest,  and  one 
of  its  most  faithful  and  popular  teachers,  until  the  occur- 
rence of  a  serious  and  threatening  rebellion,  in  the  quelling 
of  which  he  manifested,  in  no  common  degree,  the  courage 
and  energy  for  which  he  was  remarkable.  The  consequence 
of  the  outbreak  was  a  temporary  suspension  of  the  exercises 
of  the  institution,  a  slight  change  in  its  government  and 
economy,  and  the  resignation  of  some  of  its  officers — 
and  Cooper,  for  what  reason  I  know  not,  never  returned 
to  it. 

After  this,  he  made  Philadelphia  his  home.  In  a  short 

143 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

time  he  was  appointed  to  the  Professorship  of  Chemistry 
in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania ;  and,  later,  to  the  Pro- 
fessorship of  Chemistry  in  Columbia  College,  in  South 
Carolina,  which  subsequently  led  to  his  elevation  to  the 
presidency  of  that  institution. 

When  Dr.  Cooper  retired  from  the  position  of  Presi- 
dent of  Columbia  College,  on  account  of  some  misunder- 
standing with  the  Board  of  Trustees,  he  was  employed  by 
the  Legislature  to  write  a  history  of  South  Carolina. 
Whether  he  lived  to  finish  that  work  I  am  not  informed. 
My  impression  is,  however,  that  he  did  not,  but  died  while 
engaged  upon  it,  at  the  advanced  age  of  four  score  and 
upward — leaving  behind  him  a  family  but  no  estate,  not- 
withstanding the  labours  of  his  never-idle  and  protracted 
life. 

Not  only  was  Cooper's  mind  uncommonly  keen  and 
penetrating,  it  was  one  of  the  most  inquisitive  minds  I  have 
ever  witnessed.  Hence,  the  field  of  knowledge  it  traversed 
was  almost  illimitable.  It  grasped  at  everything,  especially 
at  everything  new  and  curious. 

Dr.  Cooper  was  a  man  of  low  stature,  but  robust,  well 
proportioned,  and  very  compactly  built,  his  head  was  large 
and  finely  developed,  and  uncommonly  round,  his  neck 
stout  and  thick,  his  chest  capacious. 

Having  spoken  of  Dr.  Priestley  as  a  friend  of  Dr. 
Cooper,  I  shall  offer  a  few  remarks  on  that  extraordinary 
man. 

It  is  hardly  less  than  extraordinary  that  a  friendship 
so  strong  and  fervent  as  theirs  was,  should  have  existed 
between  him  and  Cooper.  For  it  would  be  difficult  to 
find  two  men  more  dissimilar  to  each  other.  The  only 
mutual  similarity  that  marked  them  was,  that  each  of 
them  possessed  talents  of  an  exalted  order,  and  information 
of  great  variety  and  extent.  But  the  character  of  their 
intellects,  their  temperaments,  and  tempers,  and  their 
modes  of  using  their  information,  were  strikingly  unlike. 

144 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

In  their  scrutinies  and  discussions  of  subjects,  Cooper's  in- 
tellect was  the  more  keen,  penetrating  and  searching; 
Priestley's  was  the  more  diffusive,  expanded  and  liberal. 
Priestley  possessed  the  greater  amount  of  knowledge; 
Cooper  made  the  most  powerful  use  of  what  he  did  pos- 
sess. In  discussion  and  debate,  Priestley  was  calm,  placid 
and  candid;  Cooper,  vehement,  fiery,  and  sometimes  in- 
clined to  confuse,  perplex  and  entrap  his  antagonist.  The 
spirit  and  manner  of  the  latter  resembled  those  of  the 
advocate  resolved,  by  any  admissible  means,  to  succeed  in 
his  cause;  those  of  the  former  the  spirit  and  manner  of 
the  judge,  summing  up  the  evidence  and  delivering  his 
charge. 

Although  Priestley  made  more  discoveries  in  science 
than  Cooper,  yet  had  he  a  less  original,  strong,  and  philo- 
sophical mode  of  thinking.  Hence  he  depended  more  on 
the  works  of  others,  and  consulted  books  to  a  greater  extent. 
He  also  experimented  on  a  wider  scale,  and  in  a  more 
promiscuous  and  independent  manner,  and,  therefore,  made 
some  of  his  experiments  by  accident.  I  mean  that  he  made 
discoveries  other  than  those  which  he  contemplated;  and 
was  so  fortunate  as  to  make  many  when  he  contemplated 
none  at  all.  He  merely  brought  substances  into  contact, 
or  within  striking  distance  of  each  other,  and  observed 
and  noted  the  effect,  and  thus  discovered  new  and  unex- 
pected facts  and  relations  of  which  he  afterward  availed 
himself  for  useful  purposes. 

Cooper,  on  the  contrary,  had  little  or  nothing  of  hap- 
hazard in  his  actions.  Whatever  he  did  was  designed  for 
the  attainment  of  some  definite  end.  And  if  he  failed  in 
that,  his  failure  was  regardless  of  everything  else.  Hence, 
in  the  course  of  his  experiments,  or  series  of  experiments, 
he  discovered  or  picked  up  nothing  accidentally  by  the 
way.  Nor  had  he  the  patience  of  Priestley  to  persevere  in 
the  repetition  of  barren  experiments,  or  in  the  trial  of 
new  ones  for  the  same  purpose.  In  a  word,  he  was  a  neck- 

145 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

or-nothing  man  and,  therefore,  never  content  with  small 

results. 

j 

Cooper  was  one  of  the  editors,  and  for  a  time  the  sole 
editor,  of  ' '  The  Emporium  of  Arts  and  Science. ' '  This  was 
an  annual  publication  in  which  a  review  was  given  of  the 
most  interesting  discoveries  in  science.  Six  volumes  of 
the  work  are  in  the  possession  of  the  writer.  These  six  do 
not  represent  the  entire  set.  They  are  very  rare.  Cooper 
also  edited  several  text-books  of  Chemistry. 


CHAPTER  VII 

ON  page  92  appeared  the  article  in  defence  of  Priest- 
ley and  against  Dr.  Maclean  (1771-1814)  of  Prince- 
ton. At  the  close  of  the  18th  century  Maclean  was  re- 
garded as  one  of  the  first  chemists  in  the  country.  His 
appointment  at  Princeton  dates  from  Oct.  1, 1795.  He  was 
an  ardent  antiphlogistian.  His  published  contributions 
deal  mainly  with  "combustion"  and  the  erroneous  teach- 
ings of  the  doctrine  of  phlogiston.  They  appeared  in  the 
Medical  Repository.  He  was  associated  with  Silliman  in 
presenting  to  American  students  the  first  foreign  edition 
(1808)  of  Henry's  Chemistry.  Silliman  has  left  a  de- 
lightful remembrance  of  Maclean: 

At  this  celebrated  seat  of  learning  (Princeton),  an 
eminent  gentleman,  Dr.  John  Maclean,  resided  as  the  Pro- 
fessor of  Chemistry,  &c.  I  early  obtained  an  introduction 
to  him  by  correspondence,  and  he  favored  me  with  a  list  of 
books  for  the  promotion  of  my  studies.  Among  these  were 
Chaptal  's,  Lavoisier 's,  and  Fourcroy  's  Chemistry,  Scheele  's 
Essays,  Bergman's  Works,  Kirwan's  Mineralogy,  &c.  I 
also  passed  a  few  days  with  Dr.  Maclean  in  my  different 
transits  to  and  from  Philadelphia,  and  obtained  from  him 
a  general  insight  into  my  future  occupation;  inspected  his 
library  and  apparatus,  and  obtained  his  advice  regarding 
many  things.  Dr.  Maclean  was  a  man  of  brilliant  mind, 
with  all  the  acumen  of  his  native  Scotland ;  and  a  sprink- 
ling of  wit  gave  variety  to  his  conversation.  I  regard  him 
as  my  earliest  master  of  chemistry,  and  Princeton  as  my 

147 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

first  starting  point  in  that  pursuit;  although  I  had  not 
an  opportunity  to  attend  any  lectures  there.  Mrs.  Mac- 
lean was  a  lovely  woman,  and  made  my  visits  at  the  house 
very  pleasant  to  me.  She  was  a  sister  of  Commodore  Bain- 
bridge,  afterwards  signalized  by  the  capture  of  the  British 
frigate  Java,  in  the  war  of  1812-15.  Mrs.  Maclean  gave 
me  an  introduction  to  the  family  of  Commodore  Bainbridge 
in  Philadelphia,  in  which  I  was  an  occasional  visitor. 

Among  the  contemporaries  of  Maclean  was  James  Hutch- 
inson  (1752-1793),  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania.  He 
was  the  predecessor  of  Woodhouse  in  the  chair  of  chemis- 
try. His  training  in  the  science  had  been  received  abroad, 
principally  under  Fothergill.  He  must  have  attained  con- 
siderable proficiency  in  his  chosen  science,  because,  in  1774, 
he  was  the  recipient  of  a  gold  medal  bearing  the  inscription 
"for  his  superior  knowledge  in  chemistry."  He  was  an 
intense  patriot.  He  organized  the  medical  corps  under 
Washington,  and  hence  probably  had  little  leisure  for  ex- 
perimental research. 

At  Harvard,  in  1783,  was  Aaron  Dexter  (1750-1829), 
who,  as  far  as  can  be  learned,  never  published  any  research 
work,  and  the  statement  is  made  in  the  history  of  Harvard 
that  he  was  not  a  very  successful  teacher.  One  thing, 
however,  for  which  the  country  at  large  is  indebted  to  him, 
is  that  he  was  instrumental  in  having  endowed  in  1791, 
the  chair  of  Chemistry  in  Harvard,  known  as  the  Erving 
Chair  of  Chemistry. 

In  1792,  Dr.  Samuel  Latham  Mitchill  (1764-1831),  was 
elected  to  the  Chair  of  Chemistry  and  Natural  History,  in 
Columbia  College.  He  opposed  in  a  very  friendly  way, 

148 


JOHN  MACLEAN 

THE  FIRST  PROFESSOR  OF  CHEMISTRY 

IN  THE   COLLEGE  OF  NEW  JERSEY 

FROM  1795  TO  1812 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

the  views  of  Priestley  on  Phlogiston;  and  was  the  first 
teacher  of  chemistry  in  this  country  to  use  the  nomencla- 
ture of  Lavoisier.  He  was  a  man  of  a  very  strong  mind, 
and  very  learned.  Many  lines  of  investigation  received  his 
attention.  He  founded  the  Medical  Repository,  the  first 
paper  in  this  country  devoted  to  general  science  as  well  as 
medical  science.  In  1800  he  published  a  chemical  paper 
"On  the  non-action  of  nitric  acid  on  silver,  copper,  and 
tin, ' '  and,  later,  '  *  Some  interesting  particulars  on  the  his- 
tory of  muriate  of  soda,"  which  appeared  in  the  " Trans- 
actions of  the  American  Philosophical  Society. "  Another 
paper,  "Observations  on  soda,  magnesia  and  lime,  in  the 
water  of  the  ocean,  and  how  the  water  of  the  ocean  may  be 
rendered  fit  for  washing  without  the  aid  of  soap, ' '  also  ap- 
peared in  the  "Transactions."  In  1804  he  published  "A 
Sketch  of  the  Mineralogical  History  of  the  State  of  New 
York, ' '  and,  in  1809,  a  paper  bearing  the  title  ' '  Discourse 
on  Mineralogy."  Mitchill  published  a  syllabus  on  the 
"Synopsis  of  Chemical  Nomenclature  and  Arrangement." 
He  was  probably  the  first  American  to  write  on  chemical 
philosophy. 

Duyckinck  enumerates  one  hundred  and  eighty-nine 
distinct  achievements  or  important  acts  of  his  busy  life. 
He  was  just  forty  at  this  eventful  period.  His  public  life 
embraced  six  or  more  years  as  a  member  of  Congress,  and 
he  was  in  the  United  States  Senate  from  1804  to  1809 ;  but 
he  found  opportunity  meanwhile  to  be  of  essential  service 
in  innumerable  ways  to  New  York.  His  medical  career 
and  contributions  to  literature,  gave  him  a  wide  fame ;  he 
became  in  course  of  years  an  active  member  of  nearly  all 
the  learned  societies  of  the  world.  He  was  a  sort  of  human 
dictionary  whose  opinion  was  sought  by  all  originators  and 

149 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

inventors  of  every  grade  throughout  his  entire  generation. 
His  analysis  of  the  Saratoga  waters  greatly  enhanced  the 
value  and  importance  of  those  mineral  springs.  His  in- 
genious theory  of  the  doctrines  of  septon  and  septic  acid 
gave  impulse  to  Sir  Humphry  Davy 's  vast  discoveries ;  and 
his  essays  on  pestilence  awakened  inquiry  all  over  the 
world.  He  was  a  polished  orator,  a  versifier  and  a  poet, 
a  man  of  infinite  humor  and  excellent  fancy.  His  eccen- 
tricities furnished  material  for  the  wits  of  the  day  to 
fashion  many  a  joke  at  his  expense,  over  which  no  one 
laughed  more  heartily  than  himself.  He  was  equally  at 
home  in  studying  the  geology  of  Niagara  or  the  anatomy 
of  an  egg,  in  offering  suggestions  as  to  the  angle  of  a  wind- 
mill or  the  shape  of  a  gridiron,  in  deciphering  a  Babylon- 
ian brick  or  investigating  bivalves  and  discoursing  on 
conchology,  and  in  advising  how  to  apply  steam  to  naviga- 
tion or  in  disputing  about  the  Bible  with  his  neighbor  the 
Jewish  Rabbi.  He  possessed  a  charm  of  manner  and  a 
magnetism  of  mind  that  was  unusual ;  and  he  did  much  to 
advance  the  public  and  private  interests  of  America,  and 
elevate  our  scholastic  reputation  in  foreign  countries. 

Adam  Seybert  (1773-1825),  of  Philadelphia,  was  one 
of  the  very  first  Americans  to  enjoy  a  training  in  the 
School  of  Mines  in  Paris,  which  he  attended  during  the 
closing  years  of  the  eighteenth  century.  In  1797,  in  the 
1 '  Transactions  of  the  American  Philosophical  Society, ' '  he 
printed  "Experiments  and  Observations  on  Land  and  Sea 
Air."  It  is  the  first  research  of  this  kind.  It  relates 
to  the  results  of  twenty-seven  analyses  of  air  made  at  sea 
on  a  voyage  across  the  Atlantic.  These  analyses  were 
afterward  compared  with  analyses  of  air  near  Philadelphia, 
and  the  conclusion  drawn  that  the  air  over  the  sea  is  purer 
than  the  air  over  the  land.  Much  credit  is  due  Seybert 

150 


SAMUEL  LATHAM  MITCHILL 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

for  his  study  because  the  instruments  he  used  must  have 
been  exceedingly  crude  and  primitive.  Seybert  was  one 
of  the  group  of  men  who  conducted  the  laboratory  of  the 
Chemical  Society. 

It  was  his  son  Henry  who  communicated  to  the  American 
Philosophical  Society  an  important  paper  giving  analyses 
of  the  chrysoberyls  both  of  Haddam  in  Connecticut  and 
Brazil.  The  analyses  reveal  the  interesting  fact,  not  here- 
tofore suspected,  that  the  chrysoberyl  contains  Glucina  to 
the  amount  of  about  15  to  16  per  cent.  The  same  mineral 
was  analysed  in  1822,  without  detecting  the  Glucina 
though  it  was  sought  for  by  that  acute  and  promising 
chemist  Mr.  Arfvedson  of  Sweden.  In  the  analyses  by 
both  chemists  the  mineral  was  repeatedly  treated  with  caus- 
tic potassa;  the  insoluble  residue,  after  each  fusion,  being 
again  subjected  to  the  action  of  the  same  alkali.  In  each 
analysis  an  insoluble  residue,  not  attacked  by  the  potassa, 
amounting  to  about  one-sixth  of  the  mineral  employed,  was 
obtained.  The  insoluble  residue  was  found  by  Mr.  Seybert 
to  be  Glucina  associated  with  about  a  sixteenth  of  oxide  of 
titanium;  while,  according  to  Arfvedson,  "on  examina- 
tion, it  proved  to  be  pure  silica/' 


CHAPTER   VIII 

A  MEMORABLE  discovery  was  made  at  this  time — the 
invention  of  the  compound  blow-pipe,  and  Robert 
Hare,  of  Philadelphia,  was  the  inventor.    It  is  now  called 
the  oxy-hydrogen  blowpipe.    By  its  use  wonderful  results 
were  obtained.  It  is  a  real  landmark  in  scientific  discovery. 
It  seems,  therefore,  most  appropriate  to  insert  the  orig- 
inal language,  descriptive  of  the  invention,  at  this  point: 


MEMOIR 

of  the 

SUPPLY  AND  APPLICATION 

of  the 
BLOW-PIPE. 

Containing 

An  Account  of  the  new  method  of  supplying  the  Blow- 
Pipe  either  with  common  air  or  oxygen  gas:  and  also 
of  the  effects  of  the  intense  heat  produced  by  the 
combustion  of  the  hydrogen  and  oxygen  gases. 

ILLUSTRATED  BY  ENGRAVINGS. 

Published  by  order 

of  the 

CHEMICAL  SOCIETY 
OF  PHILADELPHIA, 

to  whom 

it  was  presented 

BY  ROBERT  HARE,  JUN. 

Corresponding  member  of  the  Society. 

PHILADELPHIA: 

Printed  for  the  Chemical  Society, 
By  H.  Maxwell,  Columbia-House, 

1802. 


INTRODUCTION 

On  the  24th  of  October,  1801,  a  committee,  of  which  I  was 
a  member,  was  appointed  by  the  Chemical  Society,  for 
the  discovery  of  means,  by  which  a  greater  concentration  of 
heat  might  be  obtained  for  chemical  purposes. 

The  committee  thus  appointed,  soon  after  informed  the 
Society,  that  as  they  had  conceived,  that  the  only  way  of 
attaining  the  object  of  their  appointment,  would  be  to 
precipitate  more  copious  supplies  of  oxygen  gas,  into  any 
focus  of  combustion ;  they  had  therefore  confined  their  at- 
tention to  the  exhibition  of  a  machine,  by  which  this  would 
be  much  facilitated. 

This  machine  had  been  previously  invented  by  me;  and 
I  was  induced  by  the  recommendation  of  my  colleagues,  to 
subject  it  to  the  attention  of  the  Society. 

The  Society,  honoured  the  report  of  the  committee  with 
a  favourable  reception ;  ordered  them  to  procure  an  engrav- 
ing of  the  machine;  and  that  this,  together  with  an  ex- 
planation of  it,  should  be  laid  before  the  public. 

These  commands  of  the  Society,  would  have  been  long 
since  complied  with,  but  that  experiments  suggested  them- 
selves, the  execution  of  which  has  demanded  time.  Some  of 
these  experiments  appear  to  invalidate  the  opinion,  that 
the  precipitating  of  larger  supplies  of  oxygen  gas,  into  any 
focus  of  combustion,  would  be  the  only  way,  by  which  the 
intenseness  of  caloric  could  be  increased  to  a  degree  not 
before  attained. 

On  the  tenth  of  last  December,  I  informed  the  Society 
of  my  having  conceived,  that  a  more  intense  heat  might 
be  obtained  by  the  united  combustion  of  hydrogen,  oxygen, 
and  carbon,  than  had  been  before  produced :  and  I,  at  the 
same  time,  laid  before  them  an  improvement  of  my  ma- 
chine, which  tended  much  to  facilitate  the  application  of 

m 


the  hydrogen,  and  oxygen  gases  to  this  joint  combustion.* 
Still  continuing  my  experiments  on  that  subject,  I  was 
afterwards  enabled  to  produce  to  the  Society,  fused  speci- 
mens of  native  lime,  and  pure  magnesia;  and  to  inform 
them,  that  barytes,  alumine,  and  platina,  were  susceptible 
of  rapid  fusion. 

An  account  of  the  result  of  these,  and  other  experiments, 
on  the  supply  and  application  of  the  Blow-Pipe;  together 
with  an  engraving,  and  an  explanation  of  the  apparatus, 
by  which  they  were  effected;  are  the  subjects  of  the  fol- 
lowing paper. 

*  Extract  from  the  minutes  of  the  Chemical  Society  of  the  tenth 
of  December,  1801. 

"Mr.  Hare  then  called  the  attention  of  the  Society  to  some  im- 
provements in  his  newly  invented  hydrostatic  blow-pipe,  by  which 
he  was  enabled  to  exhibit  the  combustion  of  the  hydrogen  and  oxy- 
gen gases,  the  heat  thereby  produced  being  very  intense.'' 


MEMOIR 

of  the 
SUPPLY  AND   APPLICATION 

of  the 
BLOW-PIPE. 

CHAPTER   I 

IMPOETANT  USES  OF  THE  BLOW-PIPE — IMPERFECTIONS  OF 
THE  MEANS  HITHERTO  EMPLOYED,  FOR  SUPPLYING 
IT  WITH  AIR — INVENTION  OF  A  MACHINE,  FREE 
FROM  THOSE  IMPERFECTIONS. 

The  Blow-Pipe  is,  on  many  occasions,  an  useful  instru- 
ment, to  the  artist  and  philosopher.  By  the  former  it  is 
used,  for  the  purpose  of  enamelling,  to  soften  or  solder 
small  pieces  of  metal,  and  for  the  fabrication  of  glass  in- 
struments: while  the  latter  can,  by  means  of  it,  in  a  few 
minutes  subject  small  portions  of  any  substance  to  intense 
heat;  and  is  thereby  enabled  to  judge,  of  the  advantages 
to  be  gained,  and  the  method  to  be  pursued,  in  operations 
on  a  larger  scale.  The  celebrated  Bergman  has  amply  dis- 
played the  utility  of  this  instrument,  in  docimastic 
operations;  and  with  the  perfection  of  the  docimastic  art, 
the  improvement  of  metallurgy  is  intimately  connected. 
It  is  by  means  of  the  Blow-Pipe,  that  glass  tubes  are  most 
conveniently  exposed  to  the  heat  necessary  to  mould  them 
into  the  many  forms  occasionally  required  for  philosophical 
purposes;  and  by  the  various  application  of  tubes  thus 
moulded,  ingenuity  is  often  enabled  to  surmount  the  want 

157 


CHEMISTRY    IN   AMERICA 

of  apparatus,  which  is  the  greatest  obstacle  to  the  attain- 
ment of  skill  in  experimental  philosophy. 

To  all  the  purposes  which  I  have  mentioned,  the  Blow- 
Pipe  is  fully  adequate,  when  properly  supplied  with  air, 
and  applied  to  a  proper  flame:  hut  it  appears  that  the 
means  which  have  hitherto  been  employed  to  accomplish 
those  ends,  are  all  faulty. 

The  most  general  method,  is  that  of  supplying  this  in- 
strument with  the  breath.  In  addition  to  the  well  known 
difficulty  of  keeping  up  a  constant  emission  of  air  during 
respiration,  and  its  injurious  effect  on  the  lungs;*  it  may 
be  remarked,  that  as  the  breath  is  deprived  of  part  of  its 
pure  air,  is  mixed  with  carbonic  acid  gas,  and  loaded  with 
moisture,  it  is  not  the  most  fit  for  combustion;  and  the 
obvious  impossibility  of  supporting  a  flame  with  oxygen 
gas,  by  this  method,  is  also  worthy  of  consideration. 

Another  way  of  supplying  the  Blow-Pipe  with  air,  is 
that  of  affixing  to  it  a  small  pair  of  double  bellows.  A 
contrivance  of  this  kind  possesses  obvious  advantages  over 
the  mouth  Blow-Pipe ;  but,  owing  to  the  pervious  nature  of 
the  materials  of  which  bellows  are  constructed,  and  the 
difficulties  of  making  their  valves  air  tight,  upwards  of 
nine-tenths  of  the  air  drawn  into  them,  escapes  at  other 
places  than  the  proper  aperture.  A  pair  of  bellows  of  this 
kind,  belonging  to  an  artist  of  this  city,  which  were  con- 
sidered as  unusually  air  tight,  were  found  to  discharge  the 
complement  of  their  upper  compartment,  in  six-fourths  of  a 
minute,  when  the  orifice  of  the  pipe  was  open ;  and  in  seven- 
fourths  of  a  minute,  when  it  was  closed.  Hence  it  ap- 
pears, that  six-sevenths  of  the  air  injected  into  the  upper 
compartment,  escaped  at  other  places  than  the  proper 
aperture;  and  if  to  this  loss,  were  added  that  sustained 
by  the  lower  compartment,  the  waste  would  be  found  much 
greater.  As  in  operating  with  these  machines,  it  is  nec- 

*  In  consequence  of  this  some  artists  have  abandoned  the  use  of 
the  instrument. 

15$ 


HARE'S  CHEMICAL  LABORATORY 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

essary  constantly  to  move  the  foot,  the  operator  cannot 
leave  his  seat;  and  in  nice  operations,  the  motion  of  his 
body  is  an  inconvenience,  if  not  a  source  of  failure.  Bel- 
lows of  this  kind  cannot  be  used  for  supplying  combustion 
with  oxygen  gas ;  because,  as  this  air  is  only  to  be  obtained 
by  a  chemical  process,  the  smallest  waste  of  it  is  of  serious 
consequence;  and  as  there  is  always  a  portion  of  air  re- 
maining in  them,  even  when  the  boards  are  pressed  as 
near  to  each  other  as  the  folding  of  the  leather  will  per- 
mit, any  small  quantity  of  oxygen  gas  which  might  be 
drawn  into  them,  would  be  thereby  contaminated. 

It  seems,  that  the  only  instrument  hitherto  used,  for  the 
supply  of  combustion  with  oxygen  gas,  is  the  gazometer  of 
the  celebrated  Lavoisier:  but  this  machine,  although 
admirably  calculated  for  the  purposes  of  that  great 
philosopher,  is  too  inwieldy  and  expensive,  for  ordinary 
uses. 

Being  sensible  of  the  advantages  which  would  result, 
from  the  invention  of  a  more  perfect  method  of  supplying 
the  Blow-Pipe,  with  pure,  or  atmospheric  air,  I  was  in- 
duced to  search  for  means  of  accomplishing  this  object. 
Having  observed  the  cheapness,  strength,  and  tightness 
of  coopers'  vessels,  I  became  desirous  of  forming  an  ap- 
paratus for  my  purpose,  by  means  of  hydrostatic  pressure, 
exerted  within  them.  I  soon  found,  that  this  could  not 
be  effected  conveniently,  without  the  use  of  leather. 
Obliged  to  resort  for  assistance  to  this  material,  I  endeav- 
ored to  apply  it  in  such  a  manner,  as  to  remedy  the  evils 
resulting  from  the  use  of  it,  in  the  common  kind  of  bel- 
lows. The  causes  of  these  evils  appeared  to  be,  the  opening 
of  the  pores  and  joints  of  these  instruments,  by  dryness, 
and  the  tension  to  which  they  are  so  frequently  subjected. 
I  therefore  determined  to  subject  the  leather,  which  I 
should  use,  to  moisture  and  compression.  In  this  I  suc- 
ceeded, and  derived  the  expected  advantage  from  success. 
The  result  of  my  attention  to  this  subject,  is  the  production 

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CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

of  a  machine,  of  which  there  follows  an  engraving  and 
description. 

When  it  was  first  shown  to  the  gentlemen  of  the  Chemi- 
cal Society,  some  of  them  bestowed  on  it  the  appellation  of 
Gazometer ;  but,  as  etymology  does  not  authorize  this  name, 
it  has  been  changed  for  that  of  Hydrostatic  Blow-Pipe. 


CHAPTER   II 

EXPLANATION  OF  AN  ENGRAVING  OF  THE  HYDROSTATIC 
BLOW-PIPE — ACCOUNT  OF  THE  MANNER,  AND  PRIN- 
CIPLE OF  ITS  ACTION. 

Fig.  1  (see  plate)  is  a  perspective  engraving  of  the 
Hydrostatic  Blow-Pipe. — Part  of  this  figure  is  made  trans- 
parent, that  the  internal  construction  of  the  machine,  may 
be  understood  with  the  greater  facility. 

It  consists  of  a  cask  A,  whose  length  is  thirty-two,  and 
whose  least  diameter  is  eighteen  inches.  It  is  divided,  by 
the  partition  B,  into  two  apartments.  The  upper,  and 
external  apartment  B  A,  is  in  depth  fourteen  inches.  The 
lower,  and  internal  apartment,  B  C,  is  in  depth  sixteen 
inches;  and  contains  a  sheet  and  pipe  of  copper  E  E,  D, 
which  descends  into  it  nine  inches,  forming  two  equal 
compartments  of  that  depth.  The  sheet  and  pipe  of  copper 
are  soldered  together,  and  inserted  into  the  partition  B, 
as  may  be  observed  at  Fig.  2 .;  where  B  represents  the  par- 
tition; E  E  the  sheet  of  copper;  and  D  the  pipe.  The 
edges,  E  E,  of  the  sheet,  were  slid  down  into  correspond- 
ing joints  in  the  staves  of  the  cask,  until  the  partition  at- 
tained its  proper  situation.  Coopers'  flags  were  then 
passed  into  the  joints;  and  the  hoops  were  driven  on  the 
cask. 

C  F,  Fig.  1,  is  a  pair  of  circular  bellows.  The  bottom  of 
the  cask,  serves  as  a  bottom  for  these  bellows.  In  the  cen- 

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CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

ter  of  this  bottom,  there  is  a  hole ;  round  which,  at  the  dis- 
tance of  one  inch  from  its  center,  is  a  circular  rim  of  wood. 
On  this  is  nailed  a  valve  opening  upwards,  which  may  be 
observed  at  B,  Fig.  3,  where  there  is  a  transparent  en- 
graving of  the  bellows.  Under  the  valve  B,  may  be  ob- 
served the  hole,  and  circular  rim  of  wood,  over  which  it  is 
nailed. — C  the  top  of  the  bellows,  is  a  circular  piece  of 
wood,  seven  inches  in  diameter,  and  two  in  thickness.  In 
its  center  there  is  a  hole,  one  and  a  half  inches  in  diameter. 
Around  this  hole  there  is  a  circular  rabbet,  in  which  is 
nailed  a  valve,  opening  upwards.  This  valve,  and  the  rab- 
bet in  which  it  is  fastened,  may  be  seen  under  the  letter  D, 
at  the  end  of  the  rod.  There  is  also  in  this  top,  at  the  dis- 
tance of  one  inch  from  its  perimeter,  a  circular  dovetailed 
furrow  filled  with  lead  E, 

The  body  of  the  bellows  F  F,  is  composed  of  strong 
hose  leather,  sewed  so  as  to  be  water-tight.  Before  it 
was  fixed  to  the  other  parts  of  the  bellows,  its  form  was 
that  of  a  hollow  frustum  of  a  cone;  of  which  the  per- 
pendicular, and  greatest  diameter,  were  each  eight  inches; 
and  whose  least  diameter,  was  six  and  a  half  inches.  It 
was  more  easily  fastened  to  its  appendages,  when  of  this 
conical  form,  than  if  it  had  been  cylindrical.  At  the 
protuberances  F  F,  it  is  distended  by  two  iron  rings,  to 
which  it  is  sewed  fast. 

F  G,  Fig.  I,  is  an  iron  rod,  by  means  of  which,  the  top 
of  the  bellows  may  be  raised  or  depressed.  It  passes  up 
through  the  pipe  D,  to  the  handle  G,  which  is  worked  by 
the  hand,  or  with  the  foot,  by  means  of  the  pendent  stirrup. 
An  enlarged  view  of  this  rod,  and  of  the  contrivance  by 
which  it  is  annexed  to  the  top,  may  be  seen  at  Fig.  3 ;  where 
G  D  represents  the  rod,  and  H,  H,  H,  H,  flat  pieces  of  iron 
branching  from  it.  These  are  fixed  to  the  circular  rim  K  K, 
in  such  manner  as  to  include  the  rim  I  I,  of  the  same  metal, 
which  is  screwed  fast  to  the  top  of  the  bellows.  Sufficient 
room  is  left,  to  allow  the  pieces  H,  H,  H,  H,  and  the  rim 

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CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

K,  K,  to  move  round  without  rubbing  against  the  included 
rim  I  I,  or  the  top  of  the  bellows. 

A  copper  hood,  with  an  opening  in  one  side,  may  be 
observed  at  L,  Fig.  3.  The  rod  G  D  is  passed  through 
the  center  of  this  hood,  until  the  flat  pieces  of  iron  H,  H, 
H,  H,  come  in  contact  with  the  flat  part  of  it.  The  hole  in 
the  center  is  then  luted.  The  hood  may  be  seen  in  its 
proper  situation,  at  F,  Fig.  1. 

H  I,  Fig.  1,  is  a  suction  pipe  half  an  inch  in  diameter. 
It  passes  under  the  cask,  in  the  direction  of  the  dotted  lines 
at  C,  and  turns  up  into  the  hole  in  the  bottom  of  the  bel- 
lows. This  hole,  which  is  of  such  size  as  to  fit  the  tapering 
end  of  the  pipe,  is  seen  at  Fig.  3,  and  has  already  been 
mentioned,  together  with  a  circular  rim  of  wood,  which 
being  nailed  round  it,  prevents  the  end  of  the  pipe  from 
touching  the  valve.  The  suction  pipe  has  a  conical  mouth 
at  I;  into  which  is  inserted  occasionally,  the  pipe  J,  fas- 
tened to  the  hose  and  syphon  K,  L.  The  hose  is  made  of 
leather,  distended  by  hollow  cylinders  of  tin,  half  an  inch 
in  diameter,  and  one  inch  in  length.  These  were  coated 
with  tar,  after  which  the  leather  was  sewed  over  them.* 

Fig.  1,  M  N  0,  m  n  o,  are  pipes  of  delivery,  furnished 
with  cocks  at  N,  n,  and  conical  mouths  at  0,  o.  Each  of 
these  pipes,  communicates  with  one  of  the  compartments 
on  each  side  of  the  sheet  and  pipe  E  E,  D. 

In  the  partition  B,  may  be  observed  the  pipe  Y  furnished 
with  a  cock.  Each  end  of  this  pipe,  communicates  with 
one  of  the  compartments  above  mentioned. 

P  is  a  table  affixed  to  the  cask  by  means  of  irons,  which 
are  at  pleasure  slid  into,  or  out  of  staples.  One  of  these 
irons,  and  its  staples,  may  be  seen  near  the  letter  Q.  They 

*  This  hose  may  be  made  very  perfect  by  tarring  and  covering  it 
with  leather  a  second  time,  the  seams  of  the  first  and  second  cover- 
ings being  placed  on  opposite  sides.  Flexible  pipes  thus  prepared 
will  be  found  useful  for  many  other  purposes  besides  that  here  men- 
tioned. 

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CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

are  fastened  to  pieces  of  wood,  which  run  lengthwise  under 
the  table,  and  which  are  so  grooved,  as  to  support  a  block 
of  wood,  which  slides  between  them.  Through  this  block 
passes  the  screw  S ;  which  slides  backward  and  forward  in 
the  opening  T  R  V. — The  stand  T  V,  which  may  be  ob- 
served under  the  lamp,  is  loosely  put  on  this  screw ;  but  is 
prevented  from  turning  round  with  it,  by  the  upright  strip 
of  wood  T. 

Having  described  the  construction  of  the  Hydrostatic 
Blow-Pipe,  I  proceed  to  an  explanation  of  the  principle, 
and  manner  of  its  action,  and  to  a  detail  of  the  uses  to 
which  it  may  be  applied.  '  ' 

Suppose  that  as  much  water  were  poured  into  the  cask 
A,  Fig.  1,  as  would  fill  the  lower  apartment,  and  rise  above 
the  partition  B,  one  or  two  inches.  Let  Fig.  4,  be  a  repre- 
sentation of  the  cask,  when  supplied  with  this  necessary 
quantity  of  water.  When  the  machine  is  at  rest,  the  top 
of  the  bellows  being  loaded  with  lead,  is  depressed  as  low 
as  the  folding  of  the  leather  will  permit,  and  the  small 
space  which  remains  in  consequence  of  this  folding,  be- 
tween the  top  of  the  bellows  and  the  bottom  of  the  cask, 
becomes  filled  with  water,  which  leaks  through  the  upper 
valve.  Let  the  bellows  be  extended  by  depressing  the 
handle  at  a.  The  upper  valve  will  shut  tight ;  and  a  quan- 
tity of  water  equal  to  the  bulk,  which  the  bellows  will  gain 
by  extension,  will  rise  through  the  pipe  D,  to  the  external 
apartment;  and  the  weight  of  the  atmosphere  being  re- 
moved from  the  top  of  the  valve,  in  the  bottom  of  the 
cask,  the  air  will  press  through  the  suction  pipe  I  H,  lift 
this  valve,  and  occupy  the  vacant  space  within  the  bellows. 
If  the  hand  be  then  removed  from  the  handle,  the  lead 
in  the  top  of  the  bellows  will  again  depress  it,  and  the  air 
drawn  into  them,  being  thereby  compressed,  will  force 
open  the  upper  valve,  and  ascend.  During  its  ascent,  it 
will  receive  a  strong  lateral  tendency  from  the  hood,  which 
will  make  it  pass  out  at  the  open  side  of  the  hood,  into  that 

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CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

compartment  which  is  immediately  over  this  opening ;  and 
as  by  turning  the  rod,  this  part  of  the  hood  may  be  brought 
under  either  compartment,  so  the  air  may  be  thrown  into 
either  of  them ;  and  one  of  them  being  filled  with  one  spe- 
cies of  gas,  the  other  may  be  filled  with  another  species ;  nor 
can  there  be  any  danger  of  the  mixture;  because  as  the 
pipe  D,  is  shorter  than  the  sheet  E  E,  any  superabundant 
quantity  of  air,  which  may  be  thrown  into  either  com- 
partment, will  pass  up  the  pipe  and  escape. 

In  Fig.  4,  the  bellows  are  represented  as  nearly  de- 
pressed; and  the  air  issuing  from  the  open  side  of  the 
hood  into  the  compartment  immediately  over  it,  which  is 
about  half  filled  with  air.  The  other  compartment  is 
represented  as  being  completely  full  of  that  fluid.  The 
water  is  represented  in  commotion,  that  the  action  of  the 
machine  may  be  strongly  marked;  but  the  motion  of  this 
fluid  is  in  reality  so  gentle,  that  the  regularity  of  a  blast 
is  not  thereby  perceptibly  affected. 

If  it  be  desired  to  fill  both  compartments  with  one  kind 
of  air,  without  the  trouble  of  turning  the  hood ;  by  opening 
the  cock  of  communication  in  the  pipe  Y,  any  air  which  may 
be  thrown  into  either  compartment,  will  divide  itself 
equally  between  both  of  them. 

It  must  be  obvious,  that  the  air  in  the  compartments  on 
each  side  of  the  sheet  and  pipe  of  copper  E  E,  D,  Fig.  4, 
is  subject  to  hydrostatic  pressure;  and  that  of  course,  it 
will  pass  out  at  the  pipes  of  delivery  unless  stopt  by  the 
cocks.  These  pipes  are  omitted  in  Fig.  4,  but  have  been  al- 
ready described,  together  with  their  cocks,  at  M  N  0,  m  n  o, 
Fig.  1. 

The  leather  and  joints  of  the  bellows,  are  evidently  sub- 
jected to  the  weight  of  a  considerable  column  of  water; 
but  this  pressure  being  external,  tends  to  tighten  them,  and 
renders  this  part  of  the  machine  so  perfect,  that  if  the 
orifice  of  the  suction  pipe  be  closed,  it  will  be  found  im- 
possible to  raise  the  top  of  the  bellows,  without  the  im- 

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CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

mense  force  which  would  be  necessary  to  produce  a  vacuum 
within  them.  This  would  not  be  the  case  if  the  smallest 
leakage  took  place. 


CHAPTER   III 

APPLICATION    OF    THE    HYDEOSTATIC    BLOW-PIPE,    TO    THE 
USES  OF  THE  MOUTH  BLOW-PIPE,  AND  TO  THE  PUK- 

POSES    OF     THE     ENAMELLEKs'     LAMP MANNEK     OF 

SUPPLYING  IT  WITH  THE  GASES AND  OF  APPLYING 

IT    TO   THE    SUPPLY   OF    COMBUSTION    WITH   OXYGEN 
GAS. 

It  is  now  time  to  give  an  account  of  the  purposes  to 
which  the  Hydrostatic  Blow-Pipe  may  be  applied,  and  the 
manner  of  applying  it  to  them. 

This  instrument  may  be  employed  to  supply  with  atmos- 
pheric air,  a  small  flame  for  the  various  purposes  of  the 
mouth  Blow-Pipe.  To  effect  this,  it  is  only  necessary  to 
place  a  lamp  or  candle,  on  the  stand  T  V  which  is  upheld 
by  the  screw  S,  Fig.  1.  By  raising  or  lowering  this  screw, 
or  by  sliding  backward  or  forward,  the  block  through  which 
it  passes,  the  stand  may  be  so  adjusted,  so  that  the  straight 
mouth  piece  X  will  just  enter  the  flame.  The  handle  must 
then  be  worked,  until  the  blast  obtains  the  proper  strength. 
This  generally  happens  when  the  water  has  risen  above 
the  partition  B,  three  or  four  inches.  If  it  should  be  raised 
higher,  the  blast  may  be  regulated  by  turning  the  cock  more 
or  less  at  N. 

When  an  operation  is  to  be  performed  on  a  subject  which 
cannot  be  held  over  the  table :  by  fixing  the  small  hose  and 
Blow-Pipe  a  b,  Fig.  7,  into  one  of  the  conical  mouths  0,  o, 
of  the  pipes  of  delivery,  and  by  placing  a  lamp  or  candle 
on  the  edge  of  the  table,  an  operator  may  with  the  subject 
in  his  hand  expose  the  proper  spot  to  the  flame.  In  this 

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CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

way  glass  matrasses  filled  with  liquors,  have  been  her- 
metically sealed. 

Nothing  can  be  more  steady,  than  the  stream  of  air 
emitted  by  this  instrument.  The  falling  off  in  pressure, 
arising  from  the  descent  of  the  water,  does  not  perceptibly 
affect  the  flame,  in  a  blast  of  six  minutes  duration;  and 
in  the  meantime,  the  handle  may  be  depressed  so  gently, 
that  the  most  strict  observation  will  not  discover  the  least 
unsteadiness  to  be  produced  by  it.  Or  if  the  machine  be 
filled  with  air,  by  opening  the  cock  more  or  less,  an  equable 
blast  may  be  supported  for  more  than  the  space  of  an 
hour. 

In  order  to  supply  the  enamellers'  lamp  with  air  by 
means  of  the  Hydrostatic  Blow-Pipe,  it  is  only  necessary  to 
substitute  this  instrument,  for  the  bellows  commonly  used 
for  this  purpose.  There  will  then  be  nothing  novel  in  the 
manner  of  operating,  excepting,  1st.  That  the  relative  situa- 
tion of  the  flame  and  the  pipe  is  to  be  regulated  by  turning 
the  screw  S,  or  by  sliding  backward  or  forward,  the  block 
through  which  it  passes ;  and,  2dly.  That  in  lieu  of  the  fre- 
quent movement  of  the  foot,  necessary  with  the  common 
bellows;  in  the  space  of  one  minute,  and  with  fifteen 
strokes  of  the  handle,  as  much  air  may  be  drawn  into  the 
Hydrostatic  Blow-Pipe  as  will  blow  for  one  hour;  and 
as  the  casks  and  pipes  are  completely  airtight,  the  blast 
may  be  stopt,  or  its  strength  increased  or  diminished  at 
pleasure,  by  turning,  more  or  less  the  cock  of  the  pipe 
delivering  the  air. 

The  flame  of  the  enamellers '  lamp  is  not  used  exclusively, 
for  the  purposes  of  the  artist  from  whom  it  takes  its  name. 
It  is  this  modification  of  the  principle  of  the  Blow-Pipe, 
which  is  applied  to  the  moulding  of  glass  instruments.  But 
in  heating  glass  with  this  flame,  an  inconvenience  arises 
from  the  impossibility  of  exposing  both  sides  of  any  sub- 
ject to  the  same  heat,  unless  it  be  constantly  turned  round ; 
for  if  only  one  side  of  a  large  glass  tube  be  applied  to  the 

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CHEMISTRY    IN   AMERICA 

flame,  the  part  exposed  to  its  action  will  be  fused,  before 
the  other  will  be  softened,  and  if  it  be  turned  round  con- 
stantly, a  much  longer  time  will  be  required  to  melt  it. 
Indeed  some  large  tubes  of  refractory  glass,  which  are  not 
to  be  melted  while  undergoing  this  rotary  motion,  may  be 
readily  fused  in  any  spot  constantly  exposed  to  the  action 
of  the  flame. 

In  order  to  produce  a  flame  which  should  be  free  from 
the  inconveniences  just  described,  I  procured  the  oblong 
lamp  with  twro  wicks  W,  X,  Fig.  1.  It  may  be  observed, 
that  these  wicks  are  fixed  on  two  plates,  which  slide  in  a 
groove,  in  the  direction  of  the  length  of  the  lamp.  They 
may  therefore  be  made  to  approach  to,  or  recede  from  each 
other.  This  lamp  being  as  represented  in  the  engraving 
placed  on  the  little  stand  T  V,  so  as  that  one  of  the  wicks 
was  before  the  orifice  of  the  straight  mouth  piece,  above  X ; 
the  bent  Blow-Pipe  at  W  was  so  adjusted  to  the  other  wick, 
that  wThen  they  were  both  lighted,  and  a  blast  passed  over 
them,  their  flames  met  each  other  as  represented  in  the 
plate.  The  result  of  this  was,  that  a  much  larger  tube 
could  be  fused  by  the  united  action  of  two  flames,  than 
could  be  melted  with  one  of  them;  and  the  parts  being 
more  equally  heated,  a  bend  could  be  made  more  regularly, 
and  with  less  danger  of  collapsing. 

It  may  be  proper  to  observe,  that  the  machine  repre- 
sented in  the  plate  is  much  more  complex  and  expensive, 
than  is  requisite  for  the  purposes  of  the  mouth  Blow-Pipe, 
or  enamellers'  lamp,  simply.  But  it  is  expected  that  artists 
availing  themselves  of  the  principle  of  the  machine,  will 
reject  those  appurtenances  which  are  not  necessary  to 
their  peculiar  purposes.* 

The  Hydrostatic  Blow-Pipe  may  be  filled  with  any  of 

*  The  cost  of  the  machine  represented  in  the  plate  was  about 
twenty  dollars,  but  a  machine  fully  equal  to  the  purposes  of  the 
mouth  blow-pipe  or  enameller's  lamp  may  be  made  for  one-fifth  of 
that  sum. 

167 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

the  gases,  by  exhausting  them  from  the  inverted  jars,  of  the 
pneumatic-chemical  apparatus :  and  if  it  be  desired  to  con- 
fine different  species  of  gas,  by  closing  the  cock  of  com- 
munication between  the  compartments ;  one  of  them  may  be 
filled  with  one  kind  of  gas,  and  afterwards  by  turning  the 
hood,  the  other  compartment  may  be  filled  with  another 
kind.  To  make  this  understood;  let  a,  Fig.  5,  be  a  pneu- 
matic-chemical tub,  with  a  shelf  c,  and  an  inverted  glass 
jar  b.  Suppose  that  the  tub  were  filled  with  water,  and 
jar  with  gas.  Lute  the  pipe  J,  Fig.  1,  to  the  mouth  of  the 
suction  pipe  at  I ;  pass  the  syphon  L  under  the  jar  as  may 
be  observed  in  Fig.  5,  and  then  extend  the  bellows.  The 
bellows  will  become  filled  with  the  air  of  the  jar,  and  this 
being  discharged  into  that  compartment  of  the  cask,  which 
is  over  the  open  side  of  the  hood,  the  bellows  will  be  ready 
for  another  extension;  the  repetition  of  which  would  soon 
exhaust  the  jar  of  its  air,  although  it  should  be  of  the 
largest  size. 

This  method  of  filling  the  machine  is  very  convenient  in 
a  laboratory  well  supplied  with  pneumatic-chemical  ap- 
paratus. But  it  is  a  principal  convenience  of  the  Hydro- 
static Blow-Pipe,  that  it  may  be  filled  with  any  gas,  im- 
mediately from  the  retort,  bottle,  or  matrass,  made  use  of 
in  obtaining  it.  Let  D,  Fig.  6  be  a  separate  representa- 
tion of  the  pipe  D,  Fig.  1.  Let  B  be  a  matrass  containing 
the  substance  from  which  the  air  is  to  be  obtained,  and 
let  C  be  a  syphon  luted  to  the  neck  of  the  matrass.  The 
air  issuing  from  the  matrass,  must  be  emitted  from  the 
mouth  of  the  syphon  at  the  lower  end  of  the  pipe  D.  Sup- 
pose that  this  pipe  were  in  its  proper  situation  at  D,  Fig.  1. 
The  air  issuing  from  the  matrass,  would  be  discharged  into 
that  compartment  of  the  cask,  under  which  the  mouth  of 
the  syphon  should  be  placed,  and  if  the  cock  at  Y  should  be 
closed,  this  compartment  alone  would  become  filled;  but 
if  this  cock  should  be  open,  the  air  would  divide  itself 
equally  between  both  compartments.  It  must  be  obvious, 

168 


CHEMISTRY    IN   AMERICA 

that  while  one  matrass  and  syphon,  are  employed  in  filling 
one  compartment,  with  one  species  of  air,  the  bellows,  or 
another  matrass  and  syphon  filled  with  different  substances, 
may  be  employed  in  filling  the  other  compartment  with 
another  species  of  air ;  and  thus  the  oxygen,  and  hydrogen 
gases  or  oxygen  gas,  and  atmospheric  air,  may  at  the  same 
time  be  confined  in  the  same  vessel,  without  their  mixing 
with  each  other. 

Those  who  desire  to  experiment  largely  with  oxygen  gas, 
will  find  it  advantageous,  to  make  use  of  a  cast  iron  matrass, 
with  a  short  and  large  neck  narrowing  inwards,  and  about 
fifteen  inches  of  a  gun  barrel.  The  neck  of  the  matrass 
being  made  large  or  short,  it  will  not  only  be  easily  filled, 
but  it  will  be  readily  freed  from  any  caput  mortuum 
which  may  be  left  in  it.  The  gun  barrel  must  be  ground 
to  fit  the  neck  of  the  matrass. 

The  syphon  for  conveying  the  gas  into  the  cask,  may  be 
fitted  to  the  gun  barrel  with  a  cork. 


The  philosophical  world  has  been  for  some  time  ac- 
quainted with  the  intense  heat  produced  by  combustion 
supported  with  oxygen  gas.  By  means  of  the  Hydrostatic 
Blow-Pipe,  every  artist  may,  with  little  trouble  and  ex- 
pense, avail  himself  of  the  intense  heat  produced  by  this 
combustion.* 

Probably  there  are  not  at  present  many  operations  in 
the  arts,  which  require  greater  heat  than  may  be  produced 
by  the  ordinary  means ;  but  it  is  certain,  that  the  knowledge 
of  a  process  cannot  precede  an  acquaintance  with  the  heat 
necessary  to  effect  it;  and  this  most  intense  fire,  being 
placed  within  the  reach  of  the  artist,  it  is  highly  probable, 

*  In  a  former  page  I  mentioned  the  gazometer  of  Lavoisier  as 
being  too  complicated  for  ordinary  application  to  the  supply  of  oxy- 
gen gas — I  should  also  have  noticed  the  apparatus  of  Sadler  and 
the  gazometer  of  Seguin,  but,  if  I  am  not  mistaken,  these,  although 
very  ingenious  inventions,  are  liable  to  the  same  objection, 

169 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

that  cases  may  be  discovered,  in  which  it  may  be  applied 
with  convenience  and  utility. 

The  most  convenient  way  of  making  use  of  oxygen  gas 
for  small  operations,  is  to  supply  one  of  the  compartments 
of  the  Hydrostatic  Blow-Pipe  with  that  gas;  to  retain  the 
gas  thus  confined  for  those  moments  when  the  greatest  heat 
is  required;  and  by  means  of  the  other  compartment,  to 
make  use  of  atmospheric  air  when  the  heat  produced  by 
it  is  sufficiently  intense.  It  must  be  obvious,  that  if  the 
conical  mouths,  0,  o,  of  the  pipes  M,  N,  0,  m,  n,  o,  Fig.  1, 
be  furnished  with  straight  mouth  pieces,  that  any  lamp  or 
candle  placed  on  the  stand  T  V,  may  be  readily  shifted  from 
one  mouth  piece  to  the  other,  when  it  shall  be  desired  to 
expose  any  subject  successively,  to  the  heat  produced  by  at- 
mospheric air,  and  oxygen  gas. 

If  it  be  wished  to  make  use  of  the  heat  produced  in  the 
combustion  of  charcoal  with  oxygen  gas,  after  having 
confined  a  sufficient  quantity  of  this  gas;  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  fix  in  the  conical  mouth  of  the  pipe,  communicating 
with  the  compartment  containing  the  gas,  the  larger  end 
of  a  common  brass  Blow-Pipe,  the  orifice  being  directed 
downwards.  Under  this  orifice,  the  body  to  be  acted  upon 
must  be  placed,  supported  by  a  piece  of  charcoal,  in  the 
form  of  a  parallelepiped,  the  charcoal  being  ignited  in  the 
part  contiguous  to  the  body.  Things  being  thus  arranged, 
by  turning  more  or  less,  the  cock  of  the  pipe  in  which  the 
Blow-Pipe  shall  be  fixed;  a  stream  of  oxygen  may  be  pre- 
cipitated on  the  burning  spot,  with  the  proper  degree  of 
rapidity.* 

This  method  of  supporting  the  combustion  of  carbon 

*In  detailing  the  uses  of  the  hydrostatic  blow-pipe,  it  may  be 
proper  to  mention  the  facility  which  it  gives  to  the  employment  of 
the  gases  for  medical  purposes.  When  this  machine  is  filled  with 
any  gas,  the  bag  to  be  made  use  of  in  respiring  it  may  be  inflated 
by  fixing  it  to  the  mouth  of  the  pipe  of  delivery,  communicating 
with  the  gas. 

170 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

with  oxygen  gas,  is  nearly  the  same  as  that  by  which  the 
celebrated  Lavoisier  performed  his  experiments;  excepting 
that  in  the  place  of  the  Hydrostatic  Blow-Pipe,  he  made 
use  of  his  Gazometer. 


CHAPTER   IV 

EVILS   EXPEKIENCED   IN    OPERATING   WITH    THE    COMBUS- 
TION OF  CARBON  AND  OXYGEN  GAS SUPERIOR  HEAT 

OF  COMBUSTION  SUPPORTED  BY  THE  HYDROGEN  AND 
OXYGEN  GASES — ITS  EFFECT  ON  THE  MOST  REFRAC- 
TORY SUBSTANCES. 

In  the  introduction  to  this  paper,  it  was  mentioned,  that 
some  experiments  had  been  performed,  which  seemed  to 
invalidate  the  opinion  that  the  employment  of  larger  quan- 
tities of  oxygen  gas,  would  be  the  only  means  of  increasing 
the  power  of  caloric.  I  shall  proceed  to  give  an  account  of 
these  experiments;  but  will  first  retrace  the  ideas  which 
led  to  them. 

In  operating  with  the  combustion  of  carbon  and  oxygen 
gas,  great  evils  were  observed  to  result,  from  the  difficulty 
of  placing  the  subject  of  the  operation  in  the  focus  of 
the  heat,  without  interrupting  the  stream  of  air  by  which 
this  heat  was  supported.  Not  only  was  the  focus  widened 
by  this  interruption,  and  the  intenseness  of  the  heat  there- 
by lessened;  but  the  stream  of  air  oxydated  those  sub- 
stances which  were  combustible,  and  cooled  those  which 
were  otherwise,  in  the  places  where  it  impinged  previously 
to  its  union  with  the  charcoal.  Added  to  this,  the  charcoal 
was  so  rapidly  consumed,  that  the  substance  acted  on  be- 
came so  much  buried,  that  it  was  difficult  to  follow  it  with 
the  eye,  or  the  orifice  of  the  pipe :  and  some  substances  were 
observed  to  run  into  the  pores  of  the  coal,  and  elude  ex- 
amination. 

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CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

To  avoid  these  evils  it  was  thought  desirable,  that  means 
might  be  discovered,  of  clothing  the  upper  surface  of  any 
body  which  might  be  subjected  to  this  species  of  operation, 
with  some  burning  matter,  of  which  the  heat  might  be 
equal  to  that  of  the  incandescent  carbon,  with  which  the 
lower  surface  might  be  in  contact:  or  by  which  bodies 
might  be  exposed  on  solid  supports  to  a  temperature,  equal 
or  superior  to  that  of  the  porous  charcoal  uniting  with 
oxygen. 

It  soon  occurred,  that  these  desiderata  might  be  attained 
by  means  of  flame  supported  by  the  hydrogen  and  oxygen 
gases ;  for  it  was  conceived  that  according  to  the  admirable 
theory  of  the  French  chemists,  more  caloric  ought  to  be 
extracted  by  this,  than  by  any  other  combustion. 

By  the  union  of  the  bases  of  the  hydrogen  and  oxygen 
gases,  not  only  is  all  the  caloric  of  the  oxygen  gas  evolved ; 
but  also  a  much  larger  quantity  which  must  be  necessary  to 
give  the  particles  of  the  hydrogen  their  superior  power  of 
repulsion.  The  product  of  this  combustion  is  water  in  the 
state  of  steam  which  retains  heat  so  slightly,  that  it  acts 
merely  as  a  vehicle  to  deliver  it  to  other  bodies.  What  is 
necessary  to  preserve  to  water  its  form  of  fluidity,  is  the 
only  portion  of  the  caloric  extricated  in  this  combustion, 
which  is  permanently  abstracted. 

The  combustion  of  carbon  with  oxygen  gas,  has  been 
hitherto  considered  as  the  hottest  of  all  fires.  The  caloric 
evolved  in  this  case  proceeds  from  the  oxygen  gas  alone, 
while  the  product  of  this  combustion  is  carbonic  acid  gas, 
which  abstracts  the  large  quantity  of  caloric,  necessary  to 
give  it  the  form  of  permanent  air,  but  which  adds  nothing 
to  the  heat  of  the  combustion.  Hence  it  is  evident,  that 
more  caloric  is  evolved,  and  less  abstracted,  in  combustion 
supported  by  the  hydrogen  and  oxygen  gases,  than  in 
that  supported  by  oxygen  and  carbon. 

However  the  intenseness  of  the  heat  of  combustion,  is 
not  only  dependent  on  the  quantity  of  caloric  extricated  j 

172 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

but  also  on  the  comparative  smallness  of  the  time,  and 
space,  in  which  the  extrication  is  accomplished.  But  in  this 
respect  the  aeriform  combustible,  has  obviously  the  ad- 
vantage over  those  which  are  solid,  as  its  fluid  and  elastic 
properties,  render  it  susceptible  of  being  rapidly  precipi- 
tated into  the  focus  of  combustion,  and  of  the  most 
speedy  mixture  with  the  oxydating  principle  when 
arrived  there. 

The  opinion  of  the  intenseness  of  the  heat  produced  by 
the  hydrogen  and  oxygen  gases,  thus  upheld  by  theory,  de- 
rives additional  support  from  the  practical  observation,  of 
the  great  heat  of  a  flame  supported  by  hydrogen  gas  while 
issuing  from  a  pipe ;  and  also  of  the  violent  explosion  which 
takes  place,  when  it  is  mixed  with  oxygen  gas  and  ignited, 
for  it  appears  that  this  explosion  can  only  be  attributed  to 
the  combination  of  an  immense  quantity  of  caloric,  with 
the  water  which  is  either  held  in  solution  by  these  gases, 
or  formed  by  the  union  of  their  bases. 

Such  was  the  reasoning,  which  originated  the  desire  of 
employing  the  flame  of  the  hydrogen  and  oxygen  gases. 
Before  this  could  be  accomplished,  it  was  necessary  to  over- 
come the  difficulty  of  igniting  a  mixture  of  these  aeriform 
substances,  without  the  danger  of  an  explosion.  It  was 
for  the  purpose  of  surmounting  this  difficulty,  that  the 
Hydrostatic  Blow-Pipe  was  furnished  with  two  compart- 
ments; by  means  of  which  the  machine  might  be  at  the 
same  time  charged  with  different  species  of  air,  without  any 
possibility  of  mixture.  One  of  these  compartments  being 
supplied  with  oxygen,  and  the  other  with  hydrogen  gas; 
two  common  brass  Blow-Pipes  a,  b,  Fig.  8,  were  joined  at 
their  orifices  to  two  tubular  holes  in  the  conical  frustum  of 
pure  silver  c,  of  which  the  mean  diameter  is  one-third, 
and  the  length  is  three-fourths  of  an  inch.  The  diameter  of 
one  of  these  holes  is  large  enough  for  the  admission  of  a 
common  brass  pin.  The  other  hole  is  a  third  less.  They 
commence  separately  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  silver 

173 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

frustum  near  the  circumference,  and  converge  so  as  to 
meet  in  a  point,  at  the  distance  of  a  line  and  a  half  from 
the  lower  surface.  In  the  space  between  the  lower  surface, 
and  the  point  of  meeting,  there  is  a  perforation  of  the 
same  diameter  as  the  larger  hole.  The  manner  in  which 
this  perforation  and  the  tubular  holes  communicate  one 
with  the  other,  may  be  understood  from  the  lines  in  the 
form  of  the  letter  Y,  in  the  transparent  representation  of 
the  silver  conical  frustum  at  d.  The  pipes  a  b  were  then 
fitted  into  the  mouths  0,  o,  of  the  pipes  of  delivery,  Fig. 
1:  so  that  the  Blow-Pipe  inserted  into  the  larger  hole  of 
the  frustum,  should  communicate  with  the  compartment 
containing  the  hydrogen  gas;  and  that  the  other  should 
communicate  with  that,  which  contained  the  oxygen  gas. 
The  cock  of  the  pipe  communicating  with  the  hydrogen 
gas,  was  then  turned  until  as  much  was  emitted  from  the 
orifice  of  the  cylinder,  as  when  lighted  formed  a  flame 
smaller  in  size  than  that  of  a  candle.  Under  this  flame  was 
placed  the  body  to  be  acted  on,  supported  either  by  char- 
coal, or  by  some  more  solid,  and  incombustible  substance. 
The  cock  retaining  the  oxygen  gas,  was  then  turned  until 
the  light  and  heat  appeared  to  have  attained  the  greatest 
intensity.  When  this  took  place,  the  eyes  could  scarcely 
sustain  the  one,  nor  could  the  most  refractory  substances 
resist  the  other. 

However,  it  is  worthy  of  notice,  that  the  light  and  heat 
of  this  combustion  do  not  become  evident  until  some  body 
is  exposed  to  it,  from  which  the  light  may  be  refracted,  or 
on  which  the  effect  of  the  heat  may  be  visible.  This  is  not 
the  case  with  combustion  supported  by  oxygen  and  carbon ; 
for  no  sooner  is  a  stream  of  oxygen  gas  directed  on  ignited 
carbon,  than  an  effulgence  is  produced,  which  impresses 
the  mind  of  the  beholder  with  an  idea  of  the  greatest 
heat  being  produced  by  it. 

It  is  in  this  different  appearance,  of  these  different  spe- 
cies of  combustion,  that  we  may  discover  the  reason  why 

174 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

philosophers  have  neglected  the  one;  while  they  have  be- 
stowed much  attention  on  the  other.* 

In  lieu  of  the  conical  frustum  represented  at  c  d ;  that  at 
d  e  may  be  used.  The  tubular  holes  of  this  last  mentioned 
frustum,  do  not  meet,  but  deliver  their  air  at  separate  ori- 
fices into  an  excavation  in  the  lower  part  of  the  frustum. 
The  dotted  lines  represent  the  tubular  holes;  and  the 
arched  line  the  excavation.  This  is  about  three  lines  in 
diameter,  and  enters  into  the  silver  about  the  same  dis- 
tance. 

At  f,  are  represented  pipes  which  are  used  for  the  fusion 
of  platina,  or  subjects  of  the  larger  kind.  They  consist  of 
a  large,  and  a  small  pipe,  the  orifice  of  the  one,  being  in- 
serted into  that  of  the  other;  as  may  be  understood  from 
the  dotted  lines  near  f. 

The  purity  of  the  gases  contained  in  the  Hydrostatic 
Blow-Pipe,  may  be  at  any  time  examined  by  charging  eu- 
diometers, from  the  syphon  and  leathern  pipes  hanging  to 
the  cocks  Z  Z  Fig.  1.  These  cocks  are  soldered  to  curved 
pipes,  one  of  which  is  represented  in  the  figure.  By  turn- 
ing the  cocks  round,  the  mouths  of  the  curved  pipes  may 
be  brought  down  to  the  surface  of  the  water;  this  gives  a 
facility  to  the  discovery  of  any  heavier  gas,  which  may 
be  mixed  with  one  which  is  more  light ;  as  the  fluid  whose 
specific  gravity  is  greater,  will  be  found  on  the  surface  of 
the  water. 

I  shall  now  describe  the  changes  effected  on  the  most 

*  The  inferiority  of  the  light  emitted  by  the  flame  of  the  hydro- 
gen and  oxygen  gases  to  that  which  irradiates  from  bodies  exposed 
to  its  action  adds  one  to  the  many  instances  in  combustion,  in  which 
the  quantity  and  color  of  the  light  extricated  do  not  seem  to  be  so 
much  dependent  on  the  quantity  of  oxygen  gas  consumed  as  on  the 
nature  of  the  substances  heated  or  burned.  In  this,  therefore,  we 
may  find  support  for  the  idea  that  the  light  extricated  by  fire,  or 
emitted  by  heated  bodies,  proceeds  not  only  from  the  decomposition 
of  pure  air,  but  from  that  of  the  combustible  or  the  heated  bodies 
themselves. 

175 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

fixed  and  refractory  substances,  by  the  flame  of  the  hydro- 
gen and  oxygen  gases. 

In  order  to  avoid  a  tedious  recurrence  to  an  awkward 
phrase,  I  shall  generally  in  the  subsequent  part  of  this 
paper  distinguish  the  flame  of  the  hydrogen  and  oxygen 
gases,  by  the  appellation  of  gaseous  flame. 

By  exposure  to  the  gaseous  flame,  either  on  supports  of 
silver,  or  of  carbon ;  barytes,  alumine,  and  silex,  were  com- 
pletely fused. 

The  products  of  the  fusion  of  alumine  and  silex,  were 
substances  very  similar  to  each  other,  and  much  resembling 
white  enamel. 

The  result  of  the  fusion  of  barytes,  was  a  substance  of 
an  ash  coloured  cast,  which  after  long  exposure  sometimes 
exhibited  brilliant  yellow  specks.  If  it  be  certain  that 
barytes  is  an  earth,  these  specks  must  have  been  discoloured 
particles  of  the  silver  support,  or  of  the  pipes  from  which 
the  flame  issued. 

Lime  and  magnesia  are  extremely  difficult  to  fuse,  not 
only  because  they  are  the  most  refractory  substances  in 
nature,  but  from  the  difficulty  of  preventing  them  from 
being  blown  on  one  side  by  the  flames;  nevertheless,  in 
some  instances  by  exposure  on  carbon  to  the  gaseous  flame, 
small  portions  of  these  earths  were  converted  into  black 
vitreous  masses.  Possibly  the  black  colour  of  these  prod- 
ucts of  fusion,  may  have  been  caused  by  iron  contained  in 
the  coal ;  for  in  the  high  temperature  of  the  gaseous  flame, 
a  powerful  attraction  is  reciprocally  exerted  by  iron  and 
the  earths. 

Platina  was  fused  by  exposure  on  carbon,  to  the  com- 
bustion of  hydrogen  gas  and  atmospheric  air.  But  the 
fusion  of  this  metal  was  rapidly  accomplished  by  the  gase- 
ous flame,  either  when  exposed  to  it  on  carbon,  or  upon 
metallick  supports. 

A  small  quantity  of  this  metal  in  its  native  granular 
form,  being  strewed  in  a  silver  spoon,  and  passed  under 

176 


CHEMISTRY    IN   AMERICA 

the  gaseous  flame;  the  track  of  the  flame  became  marked 
by  the  conglutination  of  the  metal:  and  when  the  heat  was 
for  some  time  continued  on  a  small  space,  a  lump  of  fused 
platina  became  immediately  formed. 

About  two  penny-weights  of  the  native  grains  of  platina, 
when  subjected  to  the  gaseous  flame  on  carbon,  became 
quickly  fused  into  an  oblate  spheroid  as  fluid  as  mercury. 
This  spheroid  after  being  cooled  was  exposed  as  before. 
It  became  fluid  in  less  than  the  fourth  of  a  minute. 

Had  I  sufficient  confidence  in  my  own  judgment,  I  should 
declare,  that  gold,  silver,  and  platina,  were  thrown  into  a 
state  of  ebullition  by  exposure  on  carbon  to  the  gaseous 
flame;  for  the  pieces  of  charcoal  on  which  they  were  ex- 
posed became  washed  or  gilt  with  detached  particles  of 
metal,  in  the  parts  adjoining  the  spots,  where  the  exposure 
took  place.  Some  of  the  particles  of  the  metal  thus  de- 
tached, exhibited  symptoms  of  oxydation. 

As  the  fusion  of  lime  and  magnesia  by  exposure  on  car- 
bon, was  accomplished  with  great  difficulty  and  uncer- 
tainty :  it  became  desirable,  that  means  might  be  discovered 
of  effecting  this  fusion  with  greater  ease. 

By  the  union  of  the  base  of  oxygen  with  iron,  the  whole 
of  the  caloric  of  this  elastic  fluid  is  supposed  to  be  extri- 
cated. This  consideration,  together  with  some  practical 
remarks  on  the  heat  of  burning  iron,  induced  me  to  em- 
ploy the  combustion  of  this  metal,  in  conjunction  with  that 
of  the  hydrogen  and  oxygen  gases. 

Some  pieces  of  iron  wire,  each  of  about  half  an  inch  in 
length,  were  quickly  thrown  into  fusion  and  rapid  combus- 
tion, by  exposure  on  carbon  to  the  gaseous  flame.  When 
either  lime,  magnesia,  barytes,  alumine,  or  silex,  were 
thrown  on  the  iron  in  this  state,  they  became  instantly 
melted  and  incorporated  with  the  metal.  It  remains  a 
question  whether  in  this  case  the  earths  were  fused  or  dis- 
solved; and  whether  the  substances  which  resulted  from 
their  union  with  the  iron,  were  mixtures,  or  combinations. 

177 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

If  they  were  combinations,  according  to  the  present  nomen- 
clature, they  should  be  denominated  ferrurets. 

The  difficulty  of  uniting  some  substances  which  are  only 
susceptible  of  combustion  at  very  high  degrees  of  heat,  has 
hitherto  excluded  them  from  the  laboratory.  By  means 
of  the  gaseous  flame,  such  substances  may  be  employed 
with  the  greatest  facility,  in  small  analytical  operations. 

Of  course  the  nature  of  the  substances  above  described 
are  the  carburets  of  iron ;  and  some  peculiar  species  of  na- 
tive coal. 

Among  the  carburets  of  iron,  the  English  plumbago  is 
esteemed  the  best.  Some  pieces  of  this  substance  obtained 
from  the  best  English  black-lead  pencils,  were  readily 
thrown  into  combustion  by  exposure  to  the  gaseous  flame, 
either  on  carbon,  or  on  some  larger  pieces  of  American 
plumbago.  It  was  found  that  either  lime  or  magnesia  were 
fusible  when  exposed  to  the  fire  thus  produced.  This  how- 
ever, may  have  been  caused  by  the  iron  contained  in  the 
carburet,  for  the  fused  earths,  and  plumbago,  generally 
adhered  to  each  other. 

There  is  a  peculiar  species  of  native  coal  found  on  the 
banks  of  the  Lehigh  in  this  state,  which  it  is  extremely 
difficult  to  ignite:  but  when  exposed  to  a  high  degree  of 
heat  and  a  copious  blast  of  air,  it  burns  yielding  an  in- 
tense heat  without  either  smoke  or  flame,  and  leaving  little 
residue.  By  exposure  to  the  gaseous  flame  on  this  coal 
both  magnesia  and  lime  exhibited  strong  symptoms  of 
fusion.  The  former  assumed  a  glazed  and  somewhat  globu- 
lar appearance.  The  latter  became  converted  into  a  brown- 
ish semivitreous  mass. 

The  heat  of  the  gaseous  flame  is  very  much  dependent 
on  the  proportional  quantities  of  the  gases  emitted.  On 
this  account  the  perforations  in  the  keys  of  the  cocks  N,  n, 
Fig.  1st,  should  be  narrow  and  oblong  to  admit  of  a  more 
gradual  increase  or  diminution  in  the  quantity  of  gas 
emitted. 

178 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

I  have  now  concluded  my  communications  on  the  sub- 
ject of  this  paper,  and  shall  he  happy  if  they  have  heen 
found  worthy  of  the  time  and  attention  bestowed  on  them 
by  the  society. 

Benjamin  Silliman,  the  elder,  developed  a  great  many  of 
the  excellent  points  of  Hare 's  blowpipe  and  made  a  number 
of  improvements  in  the  apparatus,  and,  therefore,  it  seems 
particularly  appropriate  to  note  how  Silliman 's  attach- 
ment to  Hare  began.  A  few  paragraphs  will  be  taken  from 
his  biography: 

I  arrived  in  Philadelphia  at  the  close  of  a  season  of 
yellow  fever,  having  never  been  there  before.  The  city 
was  comparatively  deserted ;  the  streets  were  quiet,  and  an 
air  of  anxiety  was  visible  in  the  aspect  of  the  remaining 
citizens.  Still,  as  cool  weather  had  commenced,  no  serious 
danger  was  apprehended,  and  by  the  recommendation  of 

my  friends, I  engaged  lodgings  at  Mrs.  Smith's, 

corner  of  Dock  and  Walnut  streets.  Dock  Street  runs 
diagonally  from  the  river,  crossing  Walnut  Street  at  an 
acute  angle,  and  there  a  wedge-shaped  house  had  been 
erected  which  was  now  to  be  my  home  for  four  months,  both 
in  this  year  and  the  next. 

This  house  attracted  a  select  class  of  gentlemen.  The 
Connecticut  members  of  Congress  resorted  to  it,  I  believe, 
while  the  government  was  in  Philadelphia ;  and  after  its  re- 
moval, as  they  were  passing  to  and  from  Washington,  it 
was  a  temporary  resting  place.  Other  gentlemen  of  in- 
telligence were  among  its  inmates,  and  several  of  them, 
being  men  of  great  promise,  were  then  rising  into  the  early 
stages  of  that  eminence  which  they  attained  in  subsequent 
years.  Among  them  were  Horace  Binney,  Charles  Chaun- 
cey,  Elihu  Chauncey,  Robert  Hare,  John  Wallace  and 
his  brother;  and  as  frequent  visitors,  John  Sargeant  and 
George  Vaux.  There  were  occasionally  other  gentlemen, 

179 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

but  those  I  have  named  were  our  stars.  Alas !  of  the  eight 
whom  I  have  named  only  two  remain;  and  if  I  add  my- 
self,— then  an  almost  unknown  young  man, — the  circle  of 
names  will  be  nine,  and  the  survivors  three, — Horace  Bin- 
ney,  Robert  Hare,  and  B.  Silliman.  Horace  Binney, 
Charles  Chauncey  and  John  Sargeant  rose  to  the  head  of 
the  Philadelphia  Bar,  and  John  Sargeant  was  afterwards  a 
member  of  Congress,  and,  I  believe,  of  the  Senate  of  the 
United  States.  Robert  Hare  took  first  rank  as  a  chemist 
and  philosopher;  Elihu  Chauncey  was  an  eminent  banker 
and  financier,  and  the  Wallaces  and  Vaux  were  most  agree- 
able gentlemen, — Vaux,  a  Quaker,  but  warm-hearted  and 
of  easy,  polished  manners.  Enos  Bronson,  of  Connecticut 
and  Yale  College,  was  also  of  our  number.  He  edited  the 
"United  States  Gazette"  with  much  talent. 

The  gentlemen  whom  I  have  named,  with  the  friends 
and  visitors  that  were  by  them  attracted  to  the  house, 
formed  a  brilliant  circle  of  high  conversational  powers. 
They  were  educated  men,  of  elevated  position  in  society, 
and  their  manners  were  in  harmony  with  their  training. 
Rarely  in  my  progress  in  life  have  I  met  with  a  circle  of 
gentlemen  who  surpassed  them  in  courteous  manners,  in 
brilliant  intelligence,  sparkling  sallies  of  wit  and  pleasan- 
try, and  cordial  greeting  both  among  themselves  and  with 
friends  and  strangers  who  were  occasionally  introduced. 
Our  hostess,  Mrs.  Smith,  a  high-spirited  and  efficient  wom- 
an, was  liberal  almost  to  a  fault,  and  furnished  her  table 
even  luxuriously.  Our  habits,  were,  indeed,  in  other  re- 
spects far  from  those  of  teetotalers.  No  person  of  that 
description  was  in  our  circle.  On  the  contrary,  agreeably 
to  the  custom  which  prevailed  in  the  boarding  houses  of  our 
cities  half  a  century  ago,  every  gentleman  furnished  him- 
self with  a  decanter  of  wine, — usually  a  metallic  or  other 
label  being  attached  to  the  neck,  and  bearing  the  name  of 
the  owner.  Healths  were  drunk,  especially  if  stranger 
guests  were  present,  and  a  glass  or  two  was  not  considered 

180 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

excessive, — sometimes  two  or  three,  according  to  circum- 
stances. Porter  or  other  strong  beer  was  used  at  table  as 
a  beverage.  As  Robert  Hare  was  a  brewer  of  porter  and 
was  one  of  our  number,  his  porter  was  in  high  request,  and 
indeed  it  was  of  an  excellent  quality.  I  do  not  remember 
any  water-drinker  at  our  table  or  in  the  house,  for  total 
abstinence  was  not  there  thought  of  except,  perhaps,  by 
some  wise  and  far-seeing  Franklin. 

Accustomed  to  a  simple  diet  in  New  Haven,  without 
wine  or  porter,  and  perhaps  with  only  cider  at  dinner,  the 
new  life  to  which  I  was  now  introduced  did  not  agree  well 
with  my  health.  Occasionally,  vertigo  disturbed  my  head, 
and  the  nervous  system  was  affected.  At  the  end  of  both 
seasons  in  Philadelphia  I  had  made  some  progress  towards 
incipient  gout.  On  my  knuckles,  what  appeared  to  be 
chalky  concretions  began  to  form,  which  however  went 
away  after  my  return  to  New  Haven  and  to  my  usual  mode 
of  living.  In  the  upper  classes  of  society  in  Philadelphia, 
the  habits  of  living  were  then  very  luxurious  and  the  spirit 
worldly.  In  my  case  the  effects  of  luxurious  living  were  to 
a  degree  counteracted  by  vigorous  exercise.  Often  I  walked 
with  my  friend  Charles  Chauncey,  even  in  severe  weather 
and  before  breakfast,  to  the  river  Schuylkill,  two  to  two  and 
a  half  miles,  and  of  course  four  to  five  miles  out  and  back ; 
and  Robert  Hare's  brewery,  one  and  a  half  mile  up  town, 
often  gave  the  occasion  of  useful  exercise :  he  became  a  warm 
friend  to  me.  There  were  no  outward  manifestations  of 
religion  in  our  boarding-house.  Grace  was,  I  believe,  never 
said  at  table,  nor  did  I  ever  hear  a  prayer  in  the  house.  I 
trust  that  private  personal  prayers  ascended  from  some 
hearts  and  lips,  in  a  house  where  so  many  were  amiable 
and  worthy,  although  without  a  religious  garb.  On  the 
Sabbath,  some  of  our  gentlemen  resorted  to  the  churches, 
and  some  dined  out  on  that  day. 

The  deficiencies  of  Dr.  Woodhouse's  courses  were,  in  a 

181 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

considerable  degree,  made  up  in  a  manner  which  I  could 
not  have  anticipated.  Robert  Hare,  my  fellow-boarder  and 
companion  at  Mrs.  Smith 's,  was  a  genial,  kind-hearted  man, 
one  year  younger  than  myself  and  was  already  a  proficient 
in  chemistry  upon  the  scale  of  that  period :  and  being  in- 
formed of  my  object  in  coming  to  Philadelphia,  he  kindly 
entered  into  my  views  and  extended  to-  me  his  friendship 
and  assistance.  A  small  working  laboratory  was  conceded 
to  us  by  the  indulgence  of  our  hostess,  Mrs.  Smith,  and 
we  made  use  of  a  spare  cellar  kitchen  (a  wedge-shaped 
house  at  the  intersection  of  Walnut  by  Dock  St.  at  the 
Southwest  corner)  in  which  we  worked  together  in  our 
hours  of  leisure  from  other  pursuits.  Mr.  Hare  had,  one 
year  before,  perfected  his  beautiful  invention  of  the  oxy-hy- 
drogen  blow-pipe,  and  had  presented  the  instrument  to  the 
Chemical  Society  of  Philadelphia.  His  mind  was  much  oc- 
cupied with  the  subject,  and  he  enlisted  me  into  his  service. 
We  worked  much  in  making  oxygen  and  hydrogen  gases, 
burning  them  at  a  common  orifice  to  produce  the  intense 
heat  of  the  instrument.  Hare  was  desirous  of  making  it  still 
more  intense  by  deriving  a  pure  oxygen  from  chlorate  of 
potassa,  then  called  oxy-muriate  of  potassa.  Chemists  were 
then  ignorant  of  the  fact  that,  by  mixing  a  little  oxide  of 
manganese  with  the  chlorate,  the  oxygen  can  be  evolved  by 
the  heat  of  a  lamp  applied  to  a  glass  retort.  Hare  thought 
it  necessary  to  use  stone  retorts  with  a  furnace-heat;  the 
retorts  were  purchased  by  me  at  a  dollar  each,  and,  as  they 
were  usually  broken  in  the  experiment,  the  research  was 
rather  costly ;  but  my  friend  furnished  experience,  and,  as 
I  was  daily  acquiring  it,  I  was  rewarded,  both  for  labor 
and  expense,  by  the  brilliant  results  of  our  experiments. 
Hare's  apparatus  was  ingenious,  but  unsafe  as  regards  the 
storage  of  the  gases.  Novice  as  I  was,  I  ventured  to  sug- 
gest to  my  more  experienced  friend  that  by  some  accident 
or  blunder  the  gases — near  neighbors  as  they  were  in  their 
contiguous  apartments, — might  become  mingled,  when,  on 

182 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

lighting  them  at  the  orifice,  an  explosion  would  follow.  I 
was  afterwards  informed,  although  not  by  Hare,  that  this 
accident  actually  happened  to  him,  although  with  no  other 
mischief  than  a  copious  shower-bath  from  the  expulsion  of 
the  water.  Many  years  afterwards,  Professor  Hitchcock 
at  Amherst,  from  the  same  cause,  met  with  an  explosion 
which  gave  him  a  great  shock,  and  for  a  time  greatly  im- 
paired his  hearing. 

Silliman,  at  a  later  time,  wrote  as  follows  concerning  his 
friend : 

Robert  Hare  was  born  in  Philadelphia,  Jan.  17, 
1781.  His  father  was  an  Englishman,  a  man  of  strong 
mind,  and  honored  in  his  adopted  country  by  the  public 
confidence.  His  mother  was  from  a  distinguished  Philadel- 
phia family.  In  early  life  he  managed  the  business  of  an 
extensive  brewery  which  his  father  had  established,  but 
his  strong  leaning  toward  physical  science  very  early  mani- 
fested itself  and  soon  led  him  to  abandon  the  pursuits  of 
a  manufacturer  and  devote  his  talents  and  fortune  to 
science.  Before  the  age  of  twenty  he  gave  evidence  of  this 
predilection  for  scientific  pursuits  by  following  the  courses 
of  lectures  on  chemistry  and  physical  science  in  his  native 
city,  and  by  uniting  himself  with  the  Chemical  Society  of 
Philadelphia,  then  embracing  the  names  of  Priestley,  Sey- 
bert  and  Woodhouse. 

Concerning  the  discovery  of  the  blowpipe,  the  following 
is  an  interesting  addition : 

In  1801,  Robert  Hare  communicated  to  the  Chemical  So- 
ciety of  Philadelphia  a  description  of  the  oxy-hydrogen 
blowpipe  which  he  then  called  a  "hydrostatic  blow-pipe." 
Silliman,  having  been  much  engaged  with  him  in  a  series  of 
experiments  with  this  instrument  in  1802-3,  subsequently 
distinguished  it  as  the  "compound  blowpipe"  having,  in 
fact,  on  his  return  from  Philadelphia  in  1803,  constructed 

183 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

for  the  laboratory  of  Yale  College  the  first  pneumatic 
trough  combining  Dr.  Hare 's  invention ;  an  apparatus  sub- 
sequently figured  and  described  by  Dr.  Hare  in  his  memoir 
"on  the  fusion  of  strontia  and  volatilization  of  platinum/'* 
His  memoir  to  the  Chemical  Society  (p.  153)  was  separately 
published  in  1801  and  was  republished  in  "Tilloch's  Phil. 
Mag.,  London,  1802,"  and  also  in  the  "Annales  de  Chimie 
(1st  series)"  V.  45. 

This  apparatus  was  the  earliest  and  perhaps  the  most 
remarkable  of  his  original  contributions  to  science.  It  was 
certainly  evidence  of  a  highly  philosophical  mind,  that 
Hare,  in  that  comparatively  early  period  in  modern  chem- 
istry, and  when  the  received  notions  of  the  true  nature  of 
combustion  were  so  vague,  not  to  say  erroneous,  should 
have  had  the  acumen  to  conceive  that  a  stream  of  oxygen 
and  hydrogen  burning  together  should  produce  so  intense 
a  heat.  Lavoisier,  certainly  one  of  the  most  acute  of  chemi- 
cal philosophers  and  unsurpassed  in  his  skill  as  an  experi- 
mentalist, had  beaten  up  the  same  path  so  far  as  to  direct 
a  jet  of  oxygen  upon  charcoal,  and  he  thus  produced  a 
degree  of  heat  by  which  he  fused  alumina  and  other  bodies 
before  deemed  infusible.  He  had  even  brought  the  ele- 
ments of  water  into  the  same  vessel  and  had  there  burned 
them  from  separate  jets,  in  his  famous  apparatus  for  the 
recomposition  of  water.  But  it  seems  never  to  have  oc- 
curred to  him  that  here  was  a  source  of  heat  greater  than 
any  then  known.  In  our  view  Hare's  merit  as  a  scientific 
philosopher  is  more  clearly  established  upon  this  discovery 
than  upon  any  other  of  the  numerous  contributions  he  has 
made  to  science.  His  original  experiments  were  repeated 
in  1802-3  in  the  presence  of  Dr.  Priestley,  the  discoverer 
of  oxygen,  then  on  a  visit  to  Philadelphia,  and  of  Silliman, 
Woodhouse,  and  others.  They  were  subsequently  greatly 
extended  by  Silliman,  who,  with  the  apparatus  already 
alluded  to,  subjected  a  great  number  of  refractory  bodies 

*  Trans.  Amer.  Phil.  Soc.,  6,  p.  99,  and  plate  3  (June  17,  1803). 

184 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

to  the  action  of  the  oxy-hydrogen  jet  and  published  an  ac- 
count of  his  results  in  the  Memoirs  of  the  "Conn.  Acad.," 
May  7,  1812. 

The  discovery  of  the  oxy-hydrogen  blowpipe  was  crowned 
by  the  American  Academy  at  Boston  with  the  Rumford 
medal. 

The  historian  of  science  will,  in  view  of  the  facts  here 
quoted,  find  it  needless  to  notice  the  disingenuousness  of 
Dr.  Clarke  of  Cambridge,  England,  in  his  * '  gas  blowpipe, ' ' 
to  overlook  or  appropriate  the  discovery  of  Hare  and  the 
researches  of  Silliman  and  others,  several  years  after  (in 
1819)  this  discovery  had  been  fully  before  the  scientific 
world, — an  effect  which  must  ever  remain  as  a  sad  stain 
upon  the  reputation  of  this  otherwise  distinguished  man.* 

It  is  not  our  purpose  here  to  rehearse  the  history  of 
Clarke's  discovery  in  full,  much  less  to  describe  all  the 
modifications  which  the  apparatus  has  received  at  the  hands 
of  its  original  discoverer  and  others.  It  is  well  known  that 
in  later  years  he  constructed  the  apparatus  on  a  gigantic 
scale,  with  large  vessels  of  wrought  iron  capable  of  sus- 
taining the  pressure  of  the  Fairmount  water  works,  and 
that  with  this  powerful  combination  he  was  able  to  fuse 
at  one  operation  nearly  two  pounds  of  platinum.f  In  these 
experiments  the  metal  is  held  upon  a  refractory  fire  brick 
and  both  are  heated  as  highly  as  possible  in  a  wind  furnace 

*  The  reader  will  peruse  with  interest,  in  this  connection,  Hare 's 
elaborate  defence  of  his  own  claims  and  those  of  his  associate,  Silli- 
man, against  Clarke's  appropriation,  in  the  American  Journal  of 
Science  (1)  V.  2,  pp.  281-302,  1820.  Clarke,  after  a  full  and  spirited 
protest  had  been  communicated  to  him,  stating  fully  Hare's  claims 
and  the  wrong  done  him,  failed  to  make  any  acknowledgment  of  his 
error,  thus  exonerating  us  from  the  old  maxim,  ' '  Nil  de  mortuis 
nisi  bonum."  Hare  heads  his  strictures  on  Clarke's  book  with  the 
well-known  lines  of  Virgil,  "Hos  ego  versiculos  feci,  tulit  alter 
honores, "  etc. 

t  Eoberts  in  New  York  has  lately  with  Hare 's  apparatus  suc- 
ceeded in  fusing  perfectly  53  oz.  of  platinum  at  one  operation, — 
N.  Y.  Tribune,  5/19. 

185 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

before  submitting  it  to  the  gas  jet.  The  product  of  this 
fusion  from  the  crude  grains  is  found  to  be  greatly  puri- 
fied, a  result  probably  due  to  the  volatilization  at  this  in- 
tense heat  of  some  of  the  associate  metals. 

The  employment  of  Hare's  jet  to  illuminate  light  houses 
and  signal  reflectors  under  the  names  of  Drummond 
light  and  Calcium  light  is  only  another  example  of  the 
mode  of  ignoring  the  name  of  the  real  discoverer,  of  which 
the  history  of  science  presents  so  many  parallels. 

The  fertility  of  Hare's  inventive  mind  is  illustrated 
by  the  numerous  and  ingenious  forms  of  apparatus  which 
he  contrived  for  research  or  illustration.  To  many  of  these 
he  was  led  by  the  necessity  of  preparing  the  illustrations  for 
his  lectures  upon  a  scale  of  magnitude  adequate  to  the  in- 
struction of  the  large  classes  of  the  Medical  School  of  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania.  He  was  called  to  fill  the  Chair 
of  Chemistry  in  that  institution  in  1818,  and  continued  in 
the  discharge  of  its  duties  for  nearly  a  third  of  a  century, 
and  until  his  resignation  in  1847. 

He  was  fond  of  graphic  illustrations;  they  abound  in 
his  memoirs  and  in  his  Compendium  and  other  works,  and 
aided  by  his  lucid  descriptions  his  inventions  thus  become 
quite  intelligible.  Where  most  instructors  are  satisfied  with 
less  perfect  and  more  simple  means  and  explanations,  he 
seemed  to  be  content  with  nothing  short  of  perfection. 

During  his  long  course  of  research  and  experimenting, 
he  accumulated  a  vast  store  of  instruments  and  materials. 
An  inspection  of  his  repositories  and  the  treasures  there 
accumulated  filled  the  observer  with  astonishment,  and 
in  his  lecture  room  there  was  always  a  profusion  of  ap- 
paratus, often  instruments  of  great  dimensions,  correspond- 
ing well  with  his  large  mind,  with  his  great  physical  and 
intellectual  power  and  unquenchable  ardor.  He  was  him- 
self an  able  and  skillful  mechanic,  and  often  worked 
adroitly  at  the  turning  lathe  and  with  the  other  resources 
of  a  well  furnished  shop.  In  his  operations  he  spared 

186 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

neither  labor  nor  expense,  and  bestowed  both  munificently 
for  the  accomplishment  of  his  objects. 

He  devoted  great  labor  and  skill  to  the  construction  of 
new  and  improved  forms  of  the  voltaic  pile,  and  it  is  easy 
to  show  that  owing  to  his  zeal  and  skill  in  this  department 
of  chemical  physics  American  chemists  were  enabled  to 
employ  with  distinguished  success  the  intense  powers  of 
extended  series  of  voltaic  couples  long  in  advance  of  the 
general  use  of  similar  combinations  in  Europe.  In  place  of 
the  cumbrous  and  unmanageable  Cruickshank  troughs  with 
which  Davy  discovered  the  metallic  bases  of  the  alkalies, 
Hare  introduced  his  Deflagrator  (see  picture),  in  which 
any  series,  however  extended,  could  be  instantaneously 
brought  into  action  or  rendered  passive  at  pleasure.  The 
peculiarities  of  Hare's  deflagrators  are  too  familiar  to  need 
any  description  here.  Although  the  discovery  of  the  con- 
stant battery  by  Daniell,  and  of  the  double  combinations  of 
platinum  or  carbon  with  amalgamated  zinc  and  nitric  acid 
have  rendered  the  old  forms  of  this  instrument  no  longer 
so  useful  as  formerly,  it  is  not  less  a  proof  of  the  merit 
of  Hare's  apparatus  that  Faraday,  in  1835,  after  having 
exhausted  his  ingenuity  and  experience  in  perfecting  the 
voltaic  battery,  found  that  Hare  had  already,  nearly 
twenty-five  years  before,  accomplished  all  that  he  had  at- 
tempted, and  with  a  noble  frankness  worthy  of  all  praise, 
he  at  once  adopted  Hare's  instrument  as  embodying  the 
best  results  then  possible.* 

It  was  with  one  of  Hare's  deflagrators  that  Silliman, 
in  1823,  first  demonstrated  the  volatilization  and  fusion  of 
carbon,  a  result  considered  so  extraordinary  at  the  time 
that  it  was  long  received  with  incredulity.  Since  the  gen- 
eral introduction  of  Bunsen's  battery  these  effects  are 
no  longer  doubted;  all  of  Silliman 's  results  have  been 
confirmed  and  extended  by  Despretz,  De  La  Rive  and 
others. 

*  Faraday's  Experimental  Kesearches,  1124,  1132. 

187 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

The  deflagrator  was  invented  in  1820.*  Four  years 
earlier  Hare  had  contrived  another  instrument  which  he 
called  the  Calorimotor.  In  this  instrument  great  extent  of 
surface  was  obtained  from  the  combining  of  many  large 
plates  (18"  or  24"  square)  of  zinc  and  copper  into  two 
series  and  plunging  the  whole  at  one  movement  into  a  tank 


HARE'S  CALORIMOTOR. 


of  dilute  acid.  The  magnetic  and  heating  effects  of  this 
instrument  were  surprising,  and  to  this  day  no  other  form 
of  voltaic  apparatus  appears  to  occasion  the  movement  of 
so  great  a  volume  of  heat  with  so  low  a  projectile  or  inten- 
sive force.  By  it,  large  rods  of  iron  or  platinum,  when 
clamped  between  its  jaws,  are  first  fully  ignited  and  then 
fused,  with  splendid  phenomena,  while  at  the  same  time 
its  intensity  is  so  low  that  hardly  the  least  visible  spark  can 
be  made  to  pass  by  it  through  poles  of  carbon. 

The  magnetic  effects  attributed  by  Hare  to  his  Calori- 
motor have  since  been  shown  by  Henry  to  be  attainable,  as 
is  now  well  known,  from  a  single  cell  if  combined  with 
suitable  conductors. 

*Silliman's  Journal  (1)   V.  3,  p.  105. 

189 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 


EXPLANATION  OF  THE  CALORIMOTOR. 

A  a,  Fig.  1st,  two  cubical  vessels,  20  inches  square,  inside, 
b  b  b  b  a  frame  of  wood  containing  20  sheets  of  copper,  and 
20  sheets  of  zinc,  alternating  with  each  other,  and  about 
half  an  inch  apart.  TTtt  masses  of  ten  cast  over  the  pro- 
truding edges  of  the  sheets  which  are  to  communicate  with 
each  other.  Figure  2,  represents  the  mode  in  which  the 
junction  between  the  various  sheets  and  tin  masses  is  ef- 
fected. Between  the  letters  zz  the  zinc  only  is  in  contact 
with  the  tin  masses.  Between  c  c  the  copper  alone  touches. 
It  may  be  observed,  that,  at  the  back  of  the  frame,  ten 
sheets  of  copper  between  cc,  and  ten  sheets  of  zinc  between 
z  z,  are  made  to  communicate,  by  a  common  mass  of  tin 
extending  the  whole  length  of  the  frame,  between  T  T : 
but  in  front,  as  in  Fig.  1,  there  is  an  interstice  between 
the  mass  of  tin  connecting  the  ten  copper  sheets,  and  that 
connecting  the  ten  zinc  sheets.  The  screw  forceps,  apper- 
taining to  each  of  the  tin  masses,  may  be  seen  on  either 
side  ,of  the  interstice:  and  likewise  a  wire  for  ignition 
held  between  them.  The  application  'of  the  rope,  pulley 
and  weights,  is  obvious.  The  swivel  at  S  permits  the  frame 
to  be  swung  round  and  lowered  into  water  in  the  vessel  a, 
to  wash  off  the  acid,  which,  after  immersion  in  the  other 
vessel,  might  continue  to  act  on  the  sheets,  encrusting  them 
with  oxide.  Between  p  p  there  is  a  wooden  partition  which 
is  not  necessary,  though  it  may  be  beneficial. 

EXPLANATION  OF  FIGURE  3  AND  FIGURE  4. 

Fig.  3,  represents  an  apparatus  analogous  to  a  Couronne 
des  Tasses,  but  reduced  to  a  form  no  less  compact  than 
that  of  the  trough ;  hollow  parallelepipeds  of  glass  are  sub- 
stituted for  tumblers  or  cells.  The  plates  are  suspended  to 
bars  counterpoised  like  window  sashes. 

190 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

The  apparatus  of  300  pairs,  alluded  to  in  the  first  me- 
moir on  the  Galvanic  Deflagrator,  was  of  the  construction 
here  represented.  I  have  since  arranged  the  glass  parall- 
elepipeds, in  a  trough,  by  the  partial  rotation  of  which  they 
are  filled  and  emptied. 

In  the  philosophy  of  chemistry,  Hare  distinguished 
himself  for  the  zeal  and  logical  acumen  with  which  he 
combated  what  he  conceived  to  be  the  errors  of  the  salt 
radical  theory.  He  was  ready  at  all  times  to  engage  in 
controversy  upon  any  point  of  theory  where  he  conceived 
there  was  an  error  latent.  No  one  can  review  the  numer- 
ous letters  which  he  has  addressed  to  the  Senior  Editor  of 
this  Journal  (Silliman),  to  Berzelius,  to  Liebig  and  to  Fara- 
day, and  published  in  this  Journal,  without  perceiving  that 
he  was  no  ordinary  antagonist. 

In  his  family  and  among  his  friends  Hare  was  very 
kind,  and  his  feelings  were  generous,  amiable  and  genial, 
although  occasionally,  his  manner  wras  abrupt — from  ab- 
sence of  mind  occasioned  by  his  habitual  abstraction  and 
absorption  in  thought ;  his  mind  was  ever  active,  and  con- 
versation would  sometimes  seem  to  awaken  him  from  an 
intellectual  reverie.  He  had  high  colloquial  powers,  but 
to  give  them  full  effect,  it  was  necessary  that  they  should 
be  roused  by  a  great  and  interesting  subject,  and  especially 
if  it  assumed  an  antagonistic  form.  He  would  then  dis- 
course with  commanding  ability,  and  his  hearers  were  gen- 
erally as  willing  to  listen  as  he  was  to  speak. 

He  was  a  man  of  unbending  rectitude,  and  a  faithful 
friend  both  in  prosperity  and  adversity. 

Silliman 's  great  joy  was  to  work  in  Hare's  company. 
And  these  two  men,  happy  in  one  another's  society,  labored 
to  advance  their  favorite  science  in  this  country.  Their 
efforts  were  most  successful.  Their  friendship  formed  in 

191 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

early  life  continued.     This  is  evident  from  the  following 
letter : 

Philadelphia,  April  28,  1853. 

MY  DEAR  SlLLIMAN: 

I  thank  you  for  your  kind  letter  and  am  happy  to  hear 
upon  the  whole  such  good  tidings  of  your  own  health  and 
the  prosperity  of  your  progeny.  You  are  much  beyond 
me  in  the  number  of  your  tribe — the  tribe  of  our  modern 
Benjamin,  one  of  the  patriarchs  of  science  if  not  of  scrip- 
tural religion.  It  will  give  me  much  pleasure  to  make  my 
abode  with  you  this  summer  for  as  much  time  as  can  be 
spared  from  Family  engagements.  Time  has  passed  as 
quickly  with  me  during  the  last  half  year  as  at  any  period 
of  my  life.  It  fairly  '  *  gallops  with-all ' '  as  it  is  by  one  of 
Shakespeare 's  wits  represented  as  doing  with  a  convict 
going  to  the  gallows  and  from  the  very  opposite  reason. 
I  wish  the  time  longer  in  order  to  get  through  enterprises 
in  given  time;  valuing  it  much  it  seems  to  be  spent  too 
quickly. 

Though  I  cannot  count  many  grandchildren  I  am  very 
well  satisfied  with  those  which  I  have.  I  am  devotedly 
attached  to  them  and  they  seem  to  be  fond  of  me,  and  if 
they  are  not  all  they  might  be  they  are  as  amicable  and 
intelligent  in  my  eyes  as  if  they  were  really  among  the 
best. 

I  have  been  making  an  instrument  to  show  how  the  wind 
would  blow  in  a  travelling  whirlwind  could  such  a  storm 
exist.  My  instrument  or  that  at  first  contrived  performed 
so  well  as  to  lead  me  to  hope  to  make  one  very  near  per- 
fection but  although  I  have  got  nearer  to  this  attainment 
it  seems  as  if  in  all  human  Efforts  they  bear  the  same  rela- 
tion to  perfection  as  the  hyperbola  to  the  Asymptote.  We 
may  approach  perfection  perpetually  but  the  result  be- 
comes at  each  approximation  more  difficult  and  as  in  divid- 
ing circulate  we  always  find  a  remainder. 

192 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

After  I  had  succeeded  in  making  many  beautiful  curves 
I  found  that  it  would  be  more  expensive  to  transfer  them 
to  copper  plate  by  any  process  than  to  engrave  them  on 
copper  originally.  Latterly  I  have  been  making  an  instru- 
ment for  this  purpose. 

By  some  recent  sales  I  have  increased  my  income  so  that 
I  no  longer  feel  the  loss  as  I  did  on  first  leaving  my 
Professorship.  The  change  this  has  induced  has  occupied 
me  much  of  late.  We  are  all  in  pretty  good  health. 

I  shall  leave  Mrs.  Hare  to  answer  for  herself  as  respects 
the  kind  invitation  of  Mrs.  Silliman  and  yourself. 

Faithfully  yours, 

ROBERT  HARE. 


Robert  Hare  was  interested  in  Galvanism,  and  watched 
the  advances  that  were  being  made  with  the  help  of  gal- 
vanic currents  with  deepest  interest.  In  one  of  his  papers 
he  writes  that  he  had  observed  Sir  Humphrey  Davy,  in 
speaking  of  the  isolation  of  the  alkaline  earth  metals,  in- 
clude calcium  in  the  number.  Hare,  however,  was  not 
altogether  satisfied  with  Davy 's  results,  and  after  consider- 
able experimentation,  presented  (1835)  a  description  of 
the  course  pursued  by  him  in  the  isolation  of  the  alkaline 
earth  metals: 


A  DESCRIPTION  OP  THE  APPARATUS  AND  PROCESS  FOR  OB- 
TAINING AMALGAMS  OP  CALCIUM,  BARIUM,  AND  STRON- 
TIUM, FROM  SATURATED  SOLUTIONS  OF  THEIR  CHLORIDES, 
BY  EXPOSURE  TO  THE  VOLTAIC  CIRCUIT  IN  CONTACT  WITH 
MERCURY,  THIS  METAL  BEING  THE  CATHODE,  AND  A  COIL 
OF  PLATINA  WIRE  THE  ANODE. 

Two    bell   glasses,    A    and   B,    with   perforated   necks, 
were  inverted  and  placed  one  within  the  other,  so  that 

193 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

between  them  there  was  an  interstice  of  half  an  inch, 
which  was  filled  with  a  freezing  mixture.  Concentrically 
within  B,  a  third  similar  bell,  F,  was  placed,  including  a 
glass  flask,  of  which  the  stem,  extended  vertically  through 


HARE'S  APPARATUS  FOR  OBTAINING  AMALGAMS,  ETC. 

the  neck  of  F.  From  a  vessel,  V,  with  a  cock  intervening, 
a  tube,  luted  to  the  orifice  of  the  flask,  extended  to  the  bot- 
tom of  it,  so  as  to  convey  thither  from  V,  a  current  of  ice 
water,  which,  after  refrigerating  the  bulk  of  the  flask,  could 
escape  through  the  nozzle  projecting  horizontally  from  the 
neck,  F.  The  mercury  in  the  capsule,  D,  communicates 

194 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

through  the  rod  with  the  negative  poles  of  one  or  more 
deflagrators:  the  capsule,  L,  in  like  manner,  with  the  cor- 
responding negative  poles. 

A  rod  of  platina  reaches  from  some  mercury  in  the  cap- 
sule, D,  through  the  necks  of  the  bells  O  and  B,  into  a 
stratum  of  mercury,  resting  upon  the  shoulder  of  the  bell 
glass,  B,  so  as  to  be  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  beneath  the 
flask.  Several  circumvolutions  of  platina  wire,  in  the  form 
of  a  flat  spiral,  were  interposed  between  the  mercury  and 
the  bottom  of  the  flask.  The  recurved  ends  of  this  wire 
were  made  to  reach  into  the  mercury  in  the  capsule,  L. 
Over  the  mouth  of  the  bell,  F,  after  the  introduction  of  the 
flask  and  spiral,  some  bed-ticking  was  tied,  so  as  to  prevent 
contact  between  the  platina  and  mercury,  and  to  check,  as 
much  as  possible,  any  reunion  between  the  radical  taken  up 
by  the  one,  and  the  chlorine  liberated  by  the  other.  Into 
the  bell,  F,  a  saturated  solution  of  the  chloride  to  be  de- 
composed, was  poured,  and  some  coarsely  powdered  crys- 
tals of  the  same  compound  added.  Of  course  the  solution, 
by  penetrating  the  ticking,  came  into  contact  with  the 
mercury. 

ELECTROLYTIC   PROCESS. 

The  peculiar  mechanism  of  my  apparatus,  by  which,  in 
ten  seconds,  the  acid  may  be  thrown  on  or  off  of  the  plates, 
enables  the  operator  within  that  time,  after  the  poles  are 
suitably  arranged,  to  put  either  or  both  of  the  deflagrators 
in  operation,  or  to  suspend  the  action  of  either  or  both. 
This  mode  of  completing  or  breaking  the  circuit,  gives  a 
great  advantage  in  deflagrating  wires;  or  in  the  processes 
wherein  dry  cyanides,  phosphurets,  or  carburets,  are  to  be 
exposed  to  voltaic  action  in  vacuo,  or  in  hydrogen.  It  en- 
ables us  to  arrange  every  part  of  the  apparatus  so  as  to 
produce  the  best  effect  upon  the  body  to  be  acted  upon,  and 
then  to  cause  a  discharge  of  the  highest  intensity,  of  which 

195 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

the  series  is  capable,  by  subjecting  all  the  plates  at  once 
to  the  acid,  previously  lying  inactive  in  the  adjoining 
trough. 

In  the  case  in  point,  where  a  chloride  was  to  be  decom- 
posed, the  deflagrators  could  be  made  to  act  through  the 
same  electrodes,  either  simultaneously  or  alternately.  Of 
these  facilities  I  thus  availed  myself. 

Having  supplied  each  deflagrator  with  a  charge  of  di- 
luted acid,  of  one-fourth  of  the  usual  strength,  I  began  with 
No.  1,  and  at  the  end  of  five  minutes,  superseded  it  by  put- 
ting No.  2  into  operation.  Meanwhile,  having  added  to 
No.  1  as  much  more  acid  as  at  first,  at  the  end  of  the  second 
five  minutes  I  superseded  No.  2  by  No.  1 ;  and  in  like  man- 
ner again  superseded  No.  1  by  No.  2.  Having  thus  con- 
tinued the  alternate  action  of  the  deflagrators,  for  about 
twenty  minutes,  both  were  made  to  act  upon  the  electrodes 
simultaneously,  the  balance  of  acid  requisite  to  complete 
the  charge,  having  been  previously  added. 

By  these  means  the  reaction  was  rendered  more  equable 
than  it  could  become  in  operating  with  one  series  more 
highly  charged.  Although,  under  such  circumstances,  the 
reaction  may  at  the  outset  be  sufficiently  powerful  to  pro- 
duce ignition,  as  I  have  often  observed,  after  fifteen  or 
twenty  minutes,  it  may  become  too  feeble  in  electrolyzing 
power,  to  render  the  continuance  of  the  powers  in  the 
slightest  degree  serviceable.  Agreeably  to  my  experience, 
as  the  ratio  of  the  calcium  to  the  mercury  increases,  the 
amalgam  formed  becomes  so  much  more  electro-positive,  as 
to  balance  the  electro-negative  influence  of  the  voltaic 
current.  After  reacting  with  one  series  of  two  hun- 
dred pairs,  of  one  hundred  square  inches  each,  for 
twenty  minutes,  I  have  found  the  proportion  of  calcium 
to  be  only  one  six-hundredth  of  the  amalgamated  mass 
obtained. 

In  this  lies  the  great  difficulty  of  obtaining  any  available 
quantity  of  the  radicals  of  the  alkaline  earths  by  electroly- 

196 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

zation,  especially  in  the  case  of  calcium.  It  is  easy  by  a 
series  of  only  fifty  pairs,  to  producce  an  amalgam  with  that 
metal,  which,  when  exposed,  will  become  covered  with  a 
pulverulent  mixture  of  lime  and  mercury,  but  in  such  case 
the  quantity  of  calcium  taken  up  by  the  mercury,  when 
estimated  by  the  resulting  oxide,  will  be  found  almost  too 
small  to  be  appreciated  by  weighing.  To  increase  the 
quantity  of  calcium  to  an  available  extent,  I  have  found 
extremely  difficult,  since,  as  the  process  proceeds,  the  chemi- 
cal affinity  becomes  more  active,  while  the  electrolyzing 
power  becomes  more  feeble. 

That  a  change  should  be  effected  in  mercury,  giving  to 
it  the  characteristics  of  an  amalgam,  by  the  addition  of  a 
sixth-hundredth  part  of  its  weight,  cannot  be  deemed  diffi- 
cult to  believe,  when  it  is  recollected  that  Davy  found,  that 
when,  by  amalgamation  with  ammonium,  a  globule  of 
mercury  had  expanded  to  two  hundred  times  its  previous 
bulk,  it  had  augmented  only  one  twelve  thousandths  of  its 
previous  weight. 

As  the  affinity  between  chlorine  and  the  radicals  of  the 
alkaline  earths  increases  in  strength  with  the  temperature, 
and  as  heat  is  evolved  in  proportion  to  the  energy  of  the 
voltaic  action,  the  disposition  of  the  elements  separated  by 
electrolyzation  to  reunite  is  augmented  in  this  way.  Hence 
the  necessity  of  refrigeration. 

The  best  index  of  the  success  of  this  process,  is  the  evo- 
lution of  chlorine;  since,  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of 
this  principle  extricated  at  the  anode,  must  be  the  quantity 
of  calcium  separated  at  the  cathode.  During  my  most  suc- 
cessful operations,  chlorine  was  evolved  so  copiously,  as 
to  tinge  the  cavity  of  the  innermost  bell  with  its  well  known 
hue.  Hence,  when  the  evolution  of  chlorine  ceases  to  be 
quite  perceptible,  the  amalgam  should  be  extricated  from 
the  apparatus,  and  separated  by  a  funnel  and  the  finger 
from  the  solution  of  chloride,  and  subjected  to  distillation 
forthwith. 

197 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 


DISTILLATORY    APPARATUS   AND  PROCESS. 

The  amalgam,  to  the  extent  of  an  ounce  measure,  was 
introduced  into  an  iron  crucible ;  of  this  crucible  a  section 
is  here  represented,  which  was  forthwith  closed  by  a  cap- 
sule seated  in  a  rabbet  or  groove  made  on  purpose  to 


A  SECTION  OP  HARE'S  AMALGAM  CRUCIBLE, 

receive  it.  The  capsule  being  supplied  with  about  half  a 
dram  of  caoutchouchine,  was  then  covered  by  the  lid.  In 
the  next  place,  by  means  of  a  movable  handle,  or  bail,  or 
wire,  so  constructed  as  to  be  easily  attached,  the  crucible 
was  transferred  to  the  interior  of  the  body  of  the  alembic. 
Into  the  cavity  thus  occupied,  about  a  dram  measure 
of  naphtha  was  poured.  The  canopy,  A,  and  body  of  the 
alembic,  B,  were  then  joined,  as  represented  in  the  figure 
(page  199),  with  the  aid  of  a  luting  of  clay  and  borax, 
between  the  grooved  juncture,  and  the  pressure  of  the 
gallows  screw  provided  for  that  purpose. 

A  communication  was  made,  between  the  alembic  and 
a  small  tubulated  glass  receiver  F,  by  means  of  an  iron 
tube,  E,  thirty  inches  long,  and  a  quarter  in  bore.  The 
tubulure  of  the  receiver  received  the  tapering  end  of  an 
adopter,  G,  which  communicated  with  a  reservoir  of  hydro- 
gen, by  means  of  a  flexible  lead  pipe.  The  length  of  the 
tube  prevented  the  alembic  or  receiver  from  being  sub- 
jected to  the  agitation  which  results  from  the  condensation 
of  the  mercurial  vapour.  Before  closing  the  juncture  com- 
pletely, all  the  air  of  the  alembic  was  expelled  by  a  current 

198 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

of  hydrogen,  desiccated  in  its  passage  by  a  mingled  mass 
of  chloride  of  calcium  and  quicklime,  contained  in  the 
adopter.  By  keeping  up  the  communication  with  the 
reservoir,  while  the  gas  within  it  was  subjected  to  a  column 
of  about  an  inch  or  two  of  water,  the  pressure  within  the 
alembic  being  greater  than  without,  there  could  be  no 
access  of  atmospheric  oxygen. 

The  bottom  of  the  alembic  was  protected  by  a  stout  cap- 
sule of  iron  (a  cast  iron  mortar  for  instance).    The  next 


HARE'S  DISTILLATORY  APPARATUS. 

step  was  to  surround  it  with  ignited  charcoal,  in  a  chauffer 
or  small  furnace;  taking  care  to  cause  the  heat  to  be  the 
greatest  at  the  upper  part.  By  these  means,  and  the  pro- 
tection afforded  by  the  mortar,  the  ebullition  of  the  mer- 
cury may  be  restricted  to  the  part  of  its  mass  nearest  to 
the  upper  surface.  Without  this  precaution  this  metal  is 
liable  to  be  thrown  into  a  state  of  explosive  vaporization, 
by  which  it  is  driven  out  of  the  crucible,  carrying  with  it 
any  other  metal  with  which  it  may  be  united. 

On  the  first  application  of  the  fire,. the  caoutchouchine 
was  distilled  into  the  receiver.  Next  followed  the  naphtha 
from  the  body  of  the  alembic.  Lastly,  the  mercury  of  the 
amalgam  distilled,  the  last  portions  requiring  a  bright  red 
heat,  in  consequence  of  the  affinity  between  the  metal  and 
the  alkaline  radical. 

After  the  distillation  was  finished,  the  apparatus  having 

199 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

been  well  refrigerated,  the  alembic  was  opened,  and  the 
crucible  removed.  As  soon  as  the  lid  was  taken  off,  some 
naphtha  was  poured  between  the  rim  of  the  capsule  and 
sides  of  the  crucible,  so  as  to  reach  the  metal  below. 

PROPERTIES  OF  THE  METALS  OBTAINED  BY  THE  PROCESSES 
ABOVE  MENTIONED. 

Although  not  appertaining  to  galvanism  or  voltaic  elec- 
tricity, it  may  be  expedient  here,  after  describing  the  ap 
paratus  and  process,  to  say  something   of  the  products 
obtained. 

When  the  heat  was  sufficient  to  expel  all  the  mercury, 
the  metal  was  found  adhering  to  the  bottom  of  the  crucible 
in  a  crust,  which  required  an  edge  tool,  to  detach  it,  though 
no  incorporation  of  the  iron  with  it  appeared  to  have  taken 
place.  When  in  distilling  calcium,  a  crucible  of  platina 
was  employed,  a  portion  of  this  metal  was  found  to  have 
united  with  some  of  the  calcium,  being  detached  therewith 
in  the  form  of  a  bright  metallic  scale. 

In  consequence  of  their  susceptibility  of  oxidation,  and 
of  union  with  the  elements  of  naphtha,  the  metals  obtained 
as  above  mentioned  were  devoid  of  metallic  lustre  until 
their  surfaces  were  removed  by  a  file  or  burnisher.  Either 
was  rapidly  oxidized  in  water,  or  in  any  liquid  containing 
it ;  and  afterwards,  with  tests,  gave  the  appropriate  proofs 
of  its  presence.  They  all  sank  in  sulphuric  acid;  were  all 
brittle,  and  fixed,  and  for  fusion,  required  at  least  a  good 
red  heat.  After  being  kept  in  naphtha,  their  effervescence 
with  water  is,  on  the  first  immersion,  much  less  active.  Un- 
der such  circumstances,  they  react  at  first  more  vivaciously 
with  hydric  ether  than  with  water,  or  even  chlorohydric 
acid ;  because  in  these  liquids  a  resinous  covering,  derived 
from  the  naphtha,  is  not  soluble,  while  to  the  ether  it  yields 
readily. 

By  means  of  solid  carbonic  acid,  obtained  by  Mit chill's 

200 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

modification  of  Thilorier's  process,  I  froze  an  ounce  mea- 
sure of  the  amalgam  of  calcium,  hoping  to  effect  a  partial 
mechanical  separation  of  the  mercury,  by  straining  through 
leather,  as  in  the  case  of  other  amalgams.  The  result,  how- 
ever, did  not  justify  my  hopes,  as  both  metals  were  ex- 
pelled through  the  pores  of  the  leather  simultaneously,  the 
calcium  forming  forthwith  a  pulverulent  oxide,  inter- 
mingled with  and  discoloured  by  mercury,  in  a  state  of  ex- 
treme division. 

By  the  same  means  I  froze  a  mass  of  the  amalgam  of  am- 
monium, as  large  as  the  palm  of  my  hand,  so  as  to  be  quite 
hard,  tenacious  and  brittle.  The  mass  floated  upon  the 
mercury  of  my  mercurial  pneumatic  cistern,  and  gradually 
liquefied,  while  its  volatile  ingredients  escaped. 

When  the  freezing  of  the  amalgam  was  expedited  by 
the  addition  of  hydric  ether,  the  resulting  solid  effervesced 
in  water,  evolving  etherial  fumes.  This  seems  to  show  that 
a  portion  of  this  ether  may  be  incorporated  with  ammonium 
and  mercury,  without  depriving  the  aggregate  thus  formed 
of  the  characteristics  of  a  metallic  alloy. 

The  first  electric  furnace  ever  used  was  probably  con- 
structed and  employed  by  Hare.  This  is  apparent  from 
the  following  communication: 

DESCRIPTION  OF  AN  APPARATUS  FOR  DEFLAGRATING  CARBU- 
RETS, OR  CYANIDES,  IN  VACUO,  OR  IN  AN  ATMOSPHERE 
OF  HYDROGEN,  BETWEEN  ELECTRODES  OF  CHARCOAL, 
WITH  AN  ACCOUNT  OF  RESULTS  OBTAINED  BY  THESE,  AND 
BY  OTHER  MEANS;  ESPECIALLY  THE  ISOLATION  OF  CAL- 
CIUM. 

Upon  a  hollow  cylinder  of  brass,  A  A,  an  extra  pump 
plate,  B  B,  is  supported.  The  cylinder  is  furnished  with 
three  valve  cocks,  D  D  D,  and  terminates  at  the  bottom 
in  a  stuffing-box,  through  which  a  copper  rod  slides  so  as 

201 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

to  reach  above  the  level  of  the  air  pump  plate.  The  end  of 
the  rod  supports  a  small  horizontal  platform  of  sheet  brass, 
which  receives  four  upright  screws.  These,  by  pressure  on 


HARE'S  APPARATUS  FOR  DEFLAGRATING  CARBURETS. 

brass  bars,  extending  from  one  to  the  other,  are  competent 
to  secure  upon  the  platform  a  parallelepiped  of  charcoal. 
Upon  the  air  pump  plate  a  glass  bell  is  supported,  and 
so  fitted  to  it,  by  grinding,  as  to  be  air  tight.  The  other- 
wise open  neck  of  the  bell  is  also  closed  air  tight  by  tying 
about  it  a  caoutchouc  bag,  of  which  the  lower  part  has 

202 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

been  cut  off,  while  into  the  neck  a  stuffing-box  has  been 
secured  air  tight.  Through  the  last  mentioned  stuffing-box, 
a  second  rod  passes,  and  terminates  within  the  bell  in  a  kind 
of  forceps,  for  holding  an  inverted  cone  of  charcoal,  E. 

The  upper  end  of  this  sliding  rod  is  so  recurved  as  to 
enter  some  mercury  in  a  capsule,  F.  By  these  means,  and 
the  elasticity  of  the  caoutchouc  bag,  this  rod  has,  to  the 
requisite  extent,  perfect  freedom  of  motion. 

The  lower  rod  descends  into  a  capsule  of  mercury,  G, 
being  in  consequence  capable  of  a  vertical  motion,  without 
breaking  contact  with  the  mercury.  It  is  moved  by  the  aid 
of  a  lever  H,  terminating  in  a  stirrup,  working  upon  pivots. 

Of  course  the  capsules  may  be  made  to  communicate  sev- 
erally with  the  poles  of  one  or  more  deflagrators.  The  sub- 
stance to  be  deflagrated  is  placed  upon  the  charcoal  form- 
ing the  lower  electrode,  being  afterwards  covered  by  the 
bell  as  represented  in  the  figure.  By  means  of  the  valve 
cocks,  a  communication  is  made  with  a  barometer  gage 
(like  that  described  in  my  Compendium,  page  77),  also 
with  an  air  pump,  and  with  a  large  self-regulating  reser- 
voir of  hydrogen.  The  air  being  removed  by  the  pump, 
a  portion  of  hydrogen  is  admitted,  and  then  withdrawn. 
This  is  repeated,  and  then  the  bell  glass,  after  as  complete 
exhaustion  as  the  performance  of  the  pump  will  render 
practicable,  is  prepared  for  deflagration  in  vacuo.  But  if 
preferred,  evidently  hydrogen  or  any  other  gas,  may  be 
introduced  from  any  convenient  source,  by  a  due  communi- 
cation through  flexible  leaden  pipes  and  valve  cocks. 

Having  described  the  apparatus,  I  will  give  an  account 
of  some  experiments  performed  with  its  assistance,  which, 
if  they  could  have  illuminated  science  as  they  did  my  lec- 
ture room,  would  have  immortalized  the  operator.  But 
alas  we  may  be  dazzled  and  almost  blinded  by  the  light 
produced  by  the  hydro-oxygen  blowpipe  or  voltaic  ignition, 
without  being  enabled  to  remove  the  darkness  which  hides 
the  mysteries  of  nature  from  our  intellectual  vision. 

203 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

I  hope,  nevertheless,  that  some  of  the  results  attained, 
may  not  be  unworthy  of  attention,  and  that  as  a  new  mode 
of  employing  the  voltaic  circuit,  my  apparatus  and  mode 
of  manipulation  will  be  interesting  to  chemists. 

An  equivalent  of  quicklime,  made  with  great  care  from 
pure  crystallized  spar,  was  well  mingled  by  trituration  with 
an  equivalent  and  a  half  of  bicyanide  of  mercury,  and  was 
then  enclosed  within  a  covered  porcelain  crucible.  The 
crucible  being  included  within  an  iron  alembic  (see  p.  199), 
the  whole  was  exposed  to  a  heat  approaching  to  red- 
ness. In  two  experiments  the  residual  mass  had  such  a 
weight  as  would  result  from  the  union  of  an  equivalent  of 
cyanogen  with  an  equivalent  of  calcium. 

A  similar  mixture  being  made,  and  in  like  manner  en- 
closed in  the  crucible  and  alembic,  it  was  subjected  to  a 
white  heat.  The  apparatus  being  refrigerated,  the  residual 
mass  was  transferred  to  a  dry  glass  phial  with  a  ground 
stopper. 

A  portion  of  the  compound,  thus  obtained  and  preserved, 
was  placed  upon  the  parallelepiped  of  charcoal,  which  was 
made  to  form  the  cathode  of  two  deflagrators  of  100  pairs 
each  like  that  described  on  page  196  acting  together  as 
one  series. 

In  the  next  place  the  cavity  of  the  bell  glass  was  filled 
with  hydrogen  by  the  process  already  described  and  the 
cone  of  charcoal  being  so  connected  with  the  positive  end  of 
the  series  as  to  be  prepared  to  perform  the  office  of  an 
anode  was  brought  into  contact  with  the  compound  to  be 
deflagrated.  These  arrangements  being  accomplished  and 
the  circuit  completed  by  throwing  the  acid  upon  the  plates, 
the  most  intense  ignition  took  place. 

The  compound  proved  to  be  an  excellent  conductor,  and 
during  its  deflagration  emitted  a  most  beautiful  purple 
light,  which  was  too  vivid  for  more  than  a  transient  endur- 
ance, by  an  eye  unprotected  by  deep  coloured  glass.  After 
the  compound  was  adjudged  to  be  sufficiently  deflagrated, 

204 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

and  time  had  been  allowed  for  refrigeration,  on  lifting  the 
receiver,  minute  masses  were  found  upon  the  coal,  which 
had  a  metallic  character,  and  which,  when  moistened,  pro- 
duced an  effluvium,  of  which  the  smell  was  like  that  which 
had  been  observed  to  be  generated  by  the  silicuret  of  po- 
tassium. 

Similar  results  had  been  attained  by  the  deflagration, 
in  a  like  manner  of  a  compound  procured  by  passing  cyano- 
gen over  quicklime  enclosed  in  a  porcelain  tube  heated  to 
incandescence. 

Phosphuret  of  calcium,  after  being  intensely  heated  with- 
out access  of  air,  was  found  to  be  an  excellent  conductor 
of  the  voltaic  current,  evolved  from  the  apparatus  above 
mentioned.  Hence  it  was  thought  expedient  to  expose  it 
in  the  circuit  of  the  deflagrator,  both  in  an  atmosphere 
of  hydrogen,  and  in  vacuo.  The  volatilization  of  phosphorus 
was  so  copious,  as  to  coat  throughout  the  inner  surface  of 
the  bell  glass  with  an  opake  film,  in  colour  resembling  that 
of  the  oxide  of  phosphorus,  generated  by  exposing  this 
substance  under  hot  water,  to  a  current  of  oxygen. 

The  phosphuret  at  first  contracted  in  bulk,  and  finally 
was  for  the  most  part  volatilized.  On  the  surface  of  the 
charcoal  adjoining  the  cavity  in  which  the  phosphuret  had 
been  deflagrated,  there  was  a  light  pulverulent  matter, 
which,  thrown  into  water,  effervesced,  and  when  rubbed 
upon  a  porcelain  tile,  appeared  to  contain  metallic  span- 
gles which  were  oxydized  by  the  subsequent  exposure  to 
atmospheric  oxygen. 

Charles  Doremus  (Transactions  of  the  American  Elec- 
trochemical Society,  13,  p.  358)  writes:  "Hare  obtained, 
despite  the  disadvantages  of  a  current  from  a  primary  bat- 
tery, calcium  carbide,  phosphorus,  graphite,  and  metallic 
calcium,  and  there  are  just  reasons  for  regarding  him  as 
the  earliest  American  scientific  experimenter  and  discov- 
erer in  electro-chemistry." 

205 


CHAPTER  IX 

SILLIMAN,  the  elder,  came  a  second  time  to  Philadel- 
phia   (Nov.  5,   1803,  to  March  25,  1804)    to  study 
science,  because  that  city  offered  more  opportunities  for 
such  study,  at  that  time,  than  any  other  American  city. 
He  has  left  a  record  of  that  year  in  his  diary: 

There  was  little  to  distinguish  this  from  the  preceding 
winter.  I  attended,  as  before,  the  course  of  chemistry  and 
anatomy,  and  resumed  my  private  labours  with  Robert 
Hare.  The  familiarity  which  I  had  acquired  in  the  pre- 
ceding year  with  men  and  things,  enabled  me  to  derive 
additional  advantage,  and  made  me  feel  more  at  home.  My 
circle  of  acquaintance  was  more  extended  quite  as  much  as 
was  consistent  with  my  studies.  I  was  admitted  hospitably 
or  socially  to  some  of  the  most  estimable  families, — that 
of  Judge  Wilson,  son  of  him  of  the  Revolution ;  to  Bishop 
White's,  Dr.  Strong's,  Col.  Biddle's,  where  there  were 
beautiful  daughters  (afterwards  Mrs.  Dr.  Chapman  and 
Mrs.  Cadwallader).  I  have  mentioned  the  Wistars,  Bain- 
bridges  and  Greens.  At  Judge  Peter's,  also,  I  was  ac- 
quainted, and  at  Mrs.  Bradford  '&.  I  visited  also  the  public 
institutions, — the  Hospital,  the  Mint,  the  Navy  Yard,  the 
Water  Works,  the  libraries,  manufactories,  etc.  Philadel- 
phia had  then  seventy-five  or  eighty  thousand  inhabitants ; 
now  it  has  more  than  half  a  million.  The  present  beautiful 
Washington  Square  was  a  Potter 's  Field,  and  all  was  coun- 
try between  it  and  the  Hospital.  About  this  time  I  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  Philosophical  Society  founded  by 

206 


BENJAMIN  SILLIMAN 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

Franklin,  and  of  course  had  free  access  to  its  library,  and 
to  its  very  intelligent  and  kind  librarian,  Mr.  John 
Vaughan,  a  man  of  large  benevolence.  I  continued  the 
writing  of  my  lectures,  and  began  to  collect  apparatus,  al- 
though on  a  humble  scale. 

In  March,  1804,  after  passing  a  few  days  at  Princeton, 
I  returned  to  New  Haven,  and  devoted  my  time  to  writing 
lectures. 

In  1805,  Silliman  (1779-1864)  went  to  Europe,  remain- 
ing abroad  a  little  more  than  a  year.  He  attended  lec- 
tures in  London  and  in  Edinburgh,  meeting  many 
of  the  foremost  scientific  men  of  the  period.  In  1811  he 
instituted  and  carried  out  experiments  with  Robert  Hare's 
blow-pipe,  in  which  he  succeeded  in  melting  lime,  magnesia, 
rock  crystal,  gun  flint,  corundum  gems  and  a  long  list  of  the 
most  refractory  minerals,  a  greater  part  of  which  had  never 
been  melted  before.* 

On  receiving  intelligence  of  Sir  Humphry  Davy's  dis- 
covery of  the  metallic  bases  of  the  alkalies,  he  completely 
repeated  his  experiments  and  obtained,  probably  for  the 
first  time  in  the  United  States,  the  metals  potassium  and 
sodium"  (p.  129).  Silliman  was  the  first  to  fuse  carbon  in 
the  voltaic  arc  (p.  184).  In  1819,  he  began  the  publication 
of  the  American  Journal  of  Science,  popularly  known  as 
Silliman' 's  Journal.  In  1829,  he  edited  an  edition  of  Bake- 
well  Js  Geology;  in  1820,  he  published  an  elaborate  "Treat- 
ise on  General  Chemistry"  in  two  volumes.  It  lays  no 

*  He  wrote :  * '  The  fusion  and  combustion  and  complete  dissipa- 
tion of  platinum,  gold,  silver,  nickel,  cobalt  and  most  of  the  metals, 
and  the  fusion  of  the  principal  earths  and  of  their  more  refractory 
compounds,  by  the  use  of  Hare's  compound  blow-pipe,  have  been  the 
familiar  and  easy  class  experiments  of  every  course  of  chemistry  in 
Yale  College  for  these  eight  years." 

207 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

claim  to  originality  in  the  treatment  of  the  subject.  From 
the  results  of  his  own  laboratory  and  from  his  much  read- 
ing, he  gathered  all  the  known  facts  and  laws  of  the 
science  and  moulded  them  in  a  form  which  he  deemed  most 
convenient  for  instruction. 

His  special  field  was  the  diffusion  of  science,  and  his 
special  gifts  and  acquirements  made  him  one  of  the  most 
popular  scientific  lecturers  in  the  country.  Without  being 
profound  or  original,  he  selected  from  the  great  storehouse 
of  knowledge,  all  familiar  to  him,  so  judicially,  and  threw 
such  an  enchantment  round  his  theme  that  all  felt  a  kind- 
ling of  enthusiasm  as  they  listened.  They  drank  in  the 
doctrines  of  latent  heat  and  chemical  equivalents,  saw 
through  all  the  forms  and  laws  of  crystallization,  and 
plainly  read  in  minerals  and  fossils  and  rocks  of  the  fields 
the  geological  eras  which  stretched  back  into  the  immeasur- 
able past  where  no  human  eye  ever  saw. 

The  utility  of  science  in  its  broadest  sense  was  always 
uppermost  in  his  mind.  In  his  several  books  and  papers, 
he  aims  at  the  accomplishments  of  usefulness. 

When  the  Chemical  Society  of  Philadelphia  ceased  to 
exist,  there  was  an  interim  in  which  no  gatherings  of 
chemists  were  held.  But,  in  1811,  many,  feeling  the  need 
of  the  influence  of  a  society  devoted  to  their  special  science, 
organized  the  Columbian  Chemical  Society  of  Philadelphia. 
The  title  page  and  a  number  of  pages  from  the  first  volume 
of  proceedings  are  herewith  submitted: 


MEMOIRS 

OF    THE 

COLUMBIAN  CHEMICAL  SOCIETY, 

OF  PHILADELPHIA 
TOLUME  I 


PUBLISHED  BY  ISAAC  PEIRCE, 

No.  3,  South  Fourth  Street. 


1813. 


PREFACE 

IN  presenting  to  the  public  the  first  fruits  of  the  Colum- 
bian Chemical  Society,  it  may  not  be  amiss,  to  give  a  short 
history  of  its  rise  and  progress. 

The  Columbian  Chemical  Society  was  founded  in  the 
month  of  August  1811,  by  a  number  of  persons  desirous  of 
cultivating  chemical  science,  and  promoting  the  state  of 
philosophical  enquiry.  And  although  the  numoer  of  mem- 
bers has  not  increased  rapidly;  yet,  from  the  zeal  mani- 
fested by  the  few  who  compose  the  Society,  in  investigating 
scientific  topics,  there  is  every  reason  to  believe,  that  the 
period  is  not  far  distant,  when  this  institution  will  rank 
high  in  respectability. 

From  the  nature  of  the  subject  to  be  investigated,  it  fol- 
lowed, that  essays  would  be  frequently  offered  by  its 
members.  Hence  arose  that  multiplicity  of  dissertations 
from  which  this  selection  has  been  made.  The  appearance, 
however,  of  some  papers,  whose  relation  to  chemistry,  is 
scarcely,  if  at  all  perceptible,  prompts  us  to  make  one 
remark.  One  of  the  articles  of  the  constitution  expressly 
declares,  that  communications  may  be  on  subjects  either 
chemical  or  philosophical. 

The  contents  of  the  volume,  are  chiefly  original,  partly 
speculative,  and  partly  practical.  The  great  variety  of 
topics  investigated,  the  novelty  of  the  essays,  will,  it  is 
hoped,  render  the  whole,  somewhat  interesting.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  papers  of  the  Society,  it  has  been  deemed  proper 
to  publish  the  Constitution,  together  with  a  list  of  officers, 
members,  &c.  &c. 

211 


CONTENTS 

Page 

Eemarks  on  the  Phlogistic  and  Antiphlogistic  Systems 
of  Chemistry.  By  Thomas  D.  Mitchell,  M.  D 5 

An  Inquiry  into  what  circumstances  will  warrant  us 
justly  to  reckon  a  substance  a  principle  of  a  common 
property  of  any  set  of  bodies.  By  Franklin  Bache  15 

On  the  prognostic  signs  of  the  weather.  By  James 
Cutbush  26 

Experiments  and  observations  on  the  effect  of  light  on 
vegetables  and  upon  the  physiology  of  leaves.  By 
John  Manners,  M.  D 47 

Speculations  on  lime.     By  Joel  B.  Sutherland,  M.  D.     58 

Kemarks  on  heat.    By  Thomas  D.  Mitchell,  M.  D 63 

On  the  oxyacetite  of  iron  as  a  test  or  re-agent  for  the 
discovery  of  Arsenic.  By  James  Cutbush 70 

Thoughts  on  the  principle  of  excitability.  By  George 
Ferdinand  Lehman  75 

Analysis  of  a  Mineral  spring,  at  the  Willow  Grove, 
Montgomery  County,  Pennsylvania.  By  John  Man- 
ners, M.  D.,  and  Thomas  D.  Mitchell,  M.  D 93 

An  Inquiry  whether  Mr.  Berthollet  was  warranted, 
from  certain  experiments,  in  framing  the  law  of 
chemical  affinity,  "that  is  directly  proportional  to 
the  quantity  of  matter.''  By  Franklin  Bache 98 

On  muriatic  and  oxy-muriatic  acids,  combustion,  &c. 
By  Thomas  D.  Mitchell,  M.  D 102 

On  the  production  of  Sulphuretted  Hydrogen  by  the 
action  of  Black  Sulphuric  Acid,  diluted  with  Water, 
on  Iron  Nails.  By  John  Manners,  M.  D 118 

On  the  emission  of  oxygen  gas  by  plants.  By  George 

213 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

Ferdinand  Lehman   121 

Analysis  of  Malachite,  or  green  carbonate  of  copper  of 
Perkioming  Pennsylvania.  By  Thomas  D.  Mitchell, 
M.  D 125 

Thoughts  on  the  expediency  of  changing  parts  of  the 
chemical  Nomenclature.  By  Franklin  Bache 127 

Remarks  on  Putrefaction.  By  Thomas  D.  Mitchell, 
M.  D 135 

A  few  remarks  upon  the  nature  of  the  nervous  influ- 
ence. By  Joel  B.  Sutherland,  M.  D 145 

Chemical  view  of  secretion.  By  Thomas  D.  Mitchell, 
M.  D 158 

Observations  upon  the  effects  of  various  gases  upon  the 
living  Animal  Body.  By  Edward  Brux,  of  France  158 

Analysis  of  professor  Coxe's  essay  on  combustion  and 
Acidification  174 

Experiments  and  observations  on  putrefaction  by  John 
Manners,  M.  D 190 

Observations  on  the  formation  of  muriate  of  potash  in 
the  process  of  preparing  the  hyperoxymuriate  of 
potash  by  William  Hembel,  jun.  Esq 202 

Analysis  of  the  Bordentown  (N.  J.)  spring.  By  Sam- 
uel F.  Earl 205 

Report  of  the  committee  to  whom  was  referred  the  an- 
alysis of  certain  ores,  presented  through  the  me- 
dium of  Thomas  Brientnall,  Esq.  to  the  Columbian 
Chemical  Society  208 

Remarks  on  the  atmosphere,  read  before  the  Colum- 
bian Chemical  Society,  by  Thomas  D.  Mitchell,  M.  D.  211 

A  new  method  of  mounting  Woulff's  Apparatus  in 
which  the  tubes  of  safety  are  superceded,  by  Wil- 
liam Hembell,  jun.  Esq.  Communicated  to  the  so- 
ciety by  John  Manners,  M.  D 218 


214 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 


OFFICERS    OF    THE    COLUMBIAN 
CHEMICAL  SOCIETY 

Hon.  Thomas  Jefferson,  Esq.  Patron. 
James  Cutbush,  Esq.  Profess.  Nat.  Philos.  Chemistry  and 
Mineralogy  in  St.  John's  College.     President. 

George  F.  Lehman)  ,,.      ^      ., 

•n      i  v     ^>    t,         J-  V lce  Presidents. 

Franklin  Bache       \ 

John  Barnes,  M.  D.  \ 

John  Lynn,  M.  D.     v  Corresponding  Committee. 

Charles  Edwards       ) 

John  C.  Heberton,  Secretary. 

James  J.  Hamm,  Treasurer. 

John  R.  Barnhill,  Orator. 

JUNIOR  MEMBERS. 

Abraham  Armstrong,  of  Santa  Cruz. 

Thomas  F.  Breintnall,  Esq.  of  Philadelphia. 

Francis  H.  Brognard,  of  New  Jersey. 

Edward  Brux,  of  France. 

D.  Burwell,  of  Virginia. 

Samuel  F.  Earl,  of  Philadelphia. 

Lewis  Gebbard,  of  New  York. 

George  Grey,  of  Philadelphia. 

Thomas  C.  Hall,  of  Maryland. 

Henry  Hawkins,  of  Maryland. 

Henry  Neill,  of  New  Jersey. 

T.  W.  Robertson,  of  South  Carolina. 

Wm.  Shippen,  of  Philadelphia. 

HONORARY  MEMBERS. 
M.  Adet,  of  France. 

F.  Aigster,  M,  D.,  Lecturer  on  Chemistry  at  Pittsburg. 

215 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

Mr.  Alien,  of  Great  Britain. 

Right  Hon.  Sir  Jos.  Banks,  Brt.  K.  B.  P.  R.  S. 

Benjamin  Smith  Barton,  M.  D.  Profess,  of  Mat.  Med.  Nat. 

Hist.  &  Bot.  in  Univer.  of  Pennsyl. 
M.  Berthollet,  of  France. 
A.  Bruce,  M.  D.  Profess,  of  Mineralogy,  Columbia  College, 

New  York. 
Chas.  Caldwell,  M.  D.  Lecturer  on  the  Inst.  and  Practice 

of  Medicine,  of  Philadelphia. 
M.  Chaptal,  of  France. 
J.  Cloud  Esq.  of  Philadelphia. 
Samuel  Conover,  M.  D.  of  Philadelphia. 
Hon.  Thos.  Cooper  Esq.  Profess,  of  Chemistry,  Mineralogy 

and  Geology,  in  Carlisle  College. 
Jno.  Redman  Coxe,  M.  D.    Profess,  of  Chemistry  in  the 

University  of  Pennsylvania. 

Edward  Cutbush,  M.  D.  Surgeon  in  the  U.  S.  Navy. 
Jno.  Dalton  Esq.  F.  R.  S.  E.  of  Manchester. 
Sir  Humphry  Davy,  Knt.  LL.  D.  Sec.  R.  S.  London. 
Jno.  Davy,  Esq.  London 

Elisha  DeButts,  M.  D.  Profess,  of  Chemistry  in  the  Col- 
lege of  Maryland. 
J.  A.  DeLuc,  F.  R.  S.  England. 
M.  Deyeux,  France. 
Benj.  DeWitt  Profess,  of  the  Institutes  of  Medicine  and 

Lecturer  of  Chemistry,  N.  York. 
John  Syng  Dorsey,  M.  D.  Adjunct  Profess,  of  Surgery, 

Univer.  of  Pennsylvania. 

Jno.  Griscom,  Lecturer  on  Chemistry,  N.  York. 
Robert  Hare,  Profess.  Nat.  Philos,  Univer.  Penn. 
C.  Hatchett,  Esq.  F.  R.  S.  London. 
Abbe  Hauy,  France. 
Wm.  Hembell,  Esq.  Philadelphia. 
"Wm.  Henry,  M.  D.  F.  R.  S.  Manchester. 
Wm.  Herschell,  L.  L.  D.,  F.  R.  S.  England. 
T.  T.  Hewson,  M.  D.  Philadelphia. 

216 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

Jno.  Hope,  M.  D.  Profess.  Chemistry  Edinburg. 

David  Hosack,  M.  D.  Profess,  of  the  Theory  and  Practice 
of  Medicine  and  of  Clinical  Medicine  in  the  University 
of  New  York. 

Henry  Jackson,  M.  D.  Profess,  of  Chemistry,  Athens  Col- 
lege, Georgia. 

M.  Boillon  Lagrange,  France. 

M.  Lussac,  France. 

His  Excel.  James  Madison,  Esq.  LL.  D.  President  of  the 
United  States  of  America. 

John  Manners,  M.  D.  F.  A.  N.  S.  of  Philadelphia. 

Jno.  McLean,  Profess,  of  Chem.  Nat.  Philos.  Princeton  Col- 
lege. 

Hon.  Saml.  L.  Mitchill,  M.  D.,  F.  R.  S.  E.  Profess.  Nat. 
Hist.  Botany,  New  York. 

Thos.  D.  Mitchell,  M.  D.  F.  A.  N.  S.  of  Philadelphia. 

M.  Monge,  of  France. 

M.  Guyton  Morveau,  of  France. 

Jno.  Murray,  Esq.  Lecturer  on  Chemistry,  Materia  Medica 
and  Pharmacy,  Edinburg. 

Wm.  Nicholson,  Esq.  London. 

Jno.  C.  Osborne,  M.  D.  Profess.  Inst.  and  Practice  of 
Medicine,  Columbia  College,  N.  York. 

M.  Parmentier,  of  France. 

Joseph  Parish,  M.  D.  of  Philadelphia. 

Robert  Patterson,  A.  M.  Profess.  Mathematics,  &  Lecturer 
on  Nat.  Philos.  University  of  Penn. 

G.  Pearson,  M.  D.,  F.  R.  S.  of  London. 

W.  H.  Pepys,  Esq.  F.  R.  S.,  England. 

M.  Pelletier  of  France. 

Nathaniel  Potter,  M.  D.  Profess,  of  the  Theo.  and  Practice 
of  Medicine,  University  of  Maryland. 

M.  Proust,  Professor  Chemistry,  Madrid. 

Benjamin  Rush,  M.  D.  Profess,  of  Inst.  and  Practice  of 
Medicine,  University  of  Pennsylvania. 

M.  Seguin,  France. 

217 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

Hon.  Adam  Seybert,  M.  D.  of  Philadelphia. 

David  Shepperd,  M.  D.  of  New  Jersey. 

Benjamin  Silliman,  Professor  of  Chemistry,  Yale  College. 

John  S.  Stringham,  M.  D.  Professor  of  Chemistry,  N.  York. 

Joel  B.  Sutherland,  M.  D.  F.  A.  N.  S.  Philadel. 

M.  Thenard,  France. 

Thomas  Thomson,  M.  D.  F.  R.  S.  E.  Lecturer  on  Chemis- 
try, Edinburg. 

Alexander  Tilloch,  Esq.  M.  R.  S.  et  F.  S.  At  London. 

Jared  Troust,  M.  D.  Lecturer  on  Mineralogy  in  the  Acad- 
emy of  Natural  Sciences. 

M.  Vauquelin,  France. 

Lawrence  Washington,  Esq.  Virginia. 

Caspar  Wistar,  M.  D.  Profess.  Anat.  Univer.  of  Pennsyl- 
vania. 

Chas.  Wistar,  Esq.  of  Philadelphia. 

Wm.  Hyde  Wollaston,  M.  D.  Sec.  R.  S.  London. 

It  is  said  that  two  volumes  of  "  Memoirs  "  were  published 
by  this  Society,  although  the  writer  has  seen  but  one  after 
years  of  search.  It  is  quite  stimulating  to  observe  that 
in  this  new  country,  young  as  it  was,  there  should  have 
been  two  such  strong  efforts  made  to  establish  societies  of 
a  National  character,  devoted  particularly  to  chemistry. 


CHAPTER    X 

FROM  the  preceding  pages  it  is  evident  that,  at  the 
close  of  the  eighteenth  and  beginning  of  the  nine- 
teenth century,  creditable  advances  were  being  made  in 
science  in  this  western  world.  Many  of  the  leading  chem- 
ists were  devoted  to  mineralogy.  They  discovered  new 
methods  of  analysis  and  brought  to  light  many  interesting 
species. 

In  this  group  of  students,  occupying  a  most  prominent 
position,  was  Archibald  Bruce  (1777-1818),  the  editor  of 
the  American  Mineralogical  Journal  of  New  York.  He 
had  carefully  analyzed  zincite  and  written  extensively 
upon  the  ores  of  titanium  found  in  the  United  States.  He 
will,  perhaps,  be  longest  remembered  by  the  fact  that  he 
first  called  attention  to  the  beautiful  mineral  which  bears 
his  own  name — brucite.  His  collection  of  minerals  pos- 
sessed great  value.  In  this  connection,  it  may  be  noted  that 
probably  the  first  mineral  analysis  of  any  importance  made 
in  this  country  was  that  of  the  mineral  chondrodite,  which 
had  been  carried  out  by  his  assistant,  Dr.  Langstaff.  Ber- 
zelius  had  failed  in  his  analysis  of  the  same  mineral  to  note 
the  fluorine  content  which  was  observed  by  Langstaff. 

It  is  said  that  Thomas  G.  Clemson  (1807-1888),  educated 
in  Chemistry  at  the  School  of  Mines  in  Paris,  was  the  first 
to  announce  the  discovery  of  the  diamond  in  the  itacolu- 
niite  of  North  Carolina.  Other  minerals  were  announced 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

by  him  at  various  times  but  his  contributions  to  pure  chem- 
istry do  not  seem  to  be  well  known. 

Lardner  Vanuxem  (1792-1848),  one  of  that  small  group 
of  Americans  privileged  to  study  at  the  School  of  Mines  in 
Paris,  in  the  early  years  of  1800,  devoted  himself  on  his 
return  almost  entirely  to  investigation  in  pure  chemistry 
and  in  mineralogy.  Some  of  his  researches  were  conducted 
in  conjunction  with  his  friend,  William  H.  Keating.  Their 
contributions  may  be  found  in  the  ''Proceedings  of  the 
Academy  of  Natural  Sciences"  (Phila.).  He  analyzed  the 
phosphate  of  iron  from  New  Jersey ;  the  tabular  spar  from 
Willsborough,  jeffersonite,  zircon,  marmolite,  and  other 
serpentines.  He  and  Keating  issued  (1822)  the  "  Miner- 
alogy of  Sussex  County,  N.  J."  For  a  period  in  his  life 
he  held  the  chair  of  Chemistry  in  the  University  of  South 
Carolina,  and  later  had  charge  of  the  geological  survey  of 
New  York.  His  large  and  beautiful  collection  of  minerals 
became,  after  his  death,  the  property  of  the  Masonic  College 
at  Clarksville,  Tenn. 

In  the  early  journals  devoted  to  science,  the  name  of 
John  Torrey  (1798-1873)  is  frequently  encountered.  He 
occupied  the  chair  of  Chemistry  at  West  Point,  later,  in 
the  College  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons  in  New  York,  and 
afterward  at  Princeton.  He  became  the  head  of  the  Chem- 
ical Department  of  the  U.  S.  Assay  Offices  in  New  York. 
Most  of  his  publications  were  printed  on  the  pages  of  the 
American  Journal  of  Science,  where,  in  the  year  1873,  a 
sketch  appeared  of  him  and  his  scientific  labors.  In  1824, 
he  issued  a  paper  "On  Yenite  in  the  United  States,"  the 
same  year  an  "Account  of  the  Columbite  of  Haddam"; 
in  1836,  "Notes  on  American  Minerals";  in  1825,  "Vau- 

220 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

quelinite  in  the  United  States";  in  1818,  ' ' Vauquelinite 
in  the  United  States";  in  1848,  "On  Staurotide";  in  1820, 
"On  Siderographite";  in  1822,  "On  an  Ore  of  Zinc  at 
Ancran";  in  1825,  "On  West  Point  Minerals";  in  1839, 
"On  the  Condensation  of  Carbonic,  Sulphurous  and 
Chlorochromic  Acid  Gases. ' ' 

Joseph  Cloud  (1770-1845),  Assay  Master  of  the  United 
States,  described  in  the  "Transactions  of  the  American 
Philosophical  Society,"  an  alloy  of  palladium  and  gold 
from  Brazil,  which  was  followed  up  with  a  further  study 
of  the  platinum  metals,  and  it  is  said  that  he  obtained 
rhodium. 

Parker  Cleaveland  (1780-1858),  professor  at  Bowdoin 
College,  Maine,  from  1803  to  the  time  of  his  death,  was  an 
excellent  chemist,  although  his  reputation  as  a  scientist 
was  mainly  due  to  his  "Elementary  Treatise  on  Mineral- 
ogy, ' '  a  most  important  contribution  to  American  scientific 
literature. 

The  Erving  Professorship  at  Harvard  was  occupied  by 
John  Gorham  (1783-1829)  from  1816  to  1827.  He  pub- 
lished two  volumes  on  "The  Elements  of  Chemical  Sci- 
ence." The  introduction  of  this  book  is  well  worth  perusal 
by  chemists  of  the  present  day,  because  of  its  wide  philo- 
sophical spirit.  Silliman  thought  well  of  the  publication 
and  said  it  was  unsurpassed  by  any  with  which  he  was 
acquainted.  It  was  the  first  systematic  treatise  on  Chemis- 
try by  an  American.  Gorham  is  further  credited  with  ' '  An 
Analysis  of  Heavy  Spar  from  Hatfield,"  "Chemical  Ex- 
amination of  Sugar,"  "Chemical  Analysis  of  Indian 
Corn,"  "Indiogene,"  etc. 

James  Freeman  Dana   (1793-1827)    (Dartmouth,  1820) 

221 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

had  been  the  assistant  of  Gorham  at  Harvard  and  studied 
Chemistry  in  the  Laboratory  of  Accum,  in  London.  His 
contributions  were:  "On  a  New  Form  of  Electrical  Bat- 
tery/' "Chemical  Examination  of  the  Berries  of  Myrica 
Cerifera,"  "The  Effect  of  Vapor  on  Flame, "  "On  the 
Existence  of  Cantharidin  in  the  Potato  Fly,"  "On  the 
Theory  of  the  Action  of  Nitrous  Gas  on  Eudiometry. "  The 
alkaloid  sanguinarine  was  discovered  by  him  in  the  roots  of 
the  Sanguinaria  Canadensis. 

Samuel  Luther  Dana  (1795-1868),  living  at  the  same 
time,  was  an  acknowledged  authority  in  technical  chemis- 
try. He  was  the  inventor  of  the  "American  System"  of 
bleaching.  He  made  a  study  of  manures  and  published  a 
volume  called  ' '  The  Muck  Manual  for  Farmers. ' ' 

George  T.  Bowen  (1803-1828),  a  student  of  the  elder 
Silliman,  as  early  as  1822  carried  on  investigations  upon 
"The  Electro-magnetic  Effects  of  Hare's  Calorimotor, " 
and  wrote  ' '  On  a  Mode  of  Preserving  in  a  Permanent  Form 
the  Coloring  Matter  of  the  Purple  Cabbage  as  a  Test  for 
Acids  and  Alkalies,"  as  well  as  described  the  minerals 
scheelite,  silicate  of  copper,  nephrite,  pyroxene-sahlite. 

Bowen 's  successor  in  the  chair  of  Chemistry  at  Nash- 
ville was  Gerard  Troost  (1776-1850),  a  Hollander,  edu- 
cated at  Amsterdam,  Leyden  and  Paris.  On  his  arrival 
in  America  in  1810,  he  settled  in  Philadelphia.  He  was 
one  of  the  founders  and  first  President  of  the  Academy  of 
Natural  Sciences.  He  was  a  very  regular  contributor  to 
the  early  volumes  of  the  "Transactions"  of  the  Society. 
Nearly  all  his  papers  deal  with  mineralogical  subjects.  In 
1814,  Dr.  Troost  established  works  for  the  production  of 
alum  at  Cape  Sable,  Maryland,  which  was  one  of  the  earliest 

222 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

chemical  industries  in  the  country  and  the  first  establish- 
ment for  the  manufacture  of  alum.  The  geological  survey 
of  Tennessee  was  instituted  by  Troost.  He  had  an  excel- 
lent knowledge  of  meteoric  bodies,  and  made  a  large  collec- 
tion of  the  same,  studying  their  chemical  and  physical 
properties.  More  than  14,000  minerals,  which,  of  course, 
included  his  meteorites,  were  described  by  him.  After  his 
death  his  collection  was  turned  over  to  the  Public  Library 
of  Louisville. 

In  the  University  of  North  Carolina,  Denison  Olmsted 
(1791-1859)  filled  the  chair  of  Chemistry  (1817-1825).  It 
is  said  that  he  made  the  first  attempt  in  the  United  States 
to  have  a  state  geologically  surveyed  and  published  a  re- 
port in  1824-25  that  covered  over  140  pages.  On  becoming 
professor  at  Yale  he  published  a  "  Memoir  on  the  State 
of  Chemical  Science ' '  which  may  be  read  now  with  curious 
interest,  as  a  record  of  the  then  existing  state  of  philosophi- 
cal opinion  in  our  science.  It  was  a  sort  of  resume  of  all 
that  had  been  done  in  chemistry. 

John  Redman  Coxe  (1773-1864),  of  the  Medical  School 
of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  was  the  associate  of 
Thomas  Cooper  (p.  128)  in  the  publication  of  "The  Em- 
porium of  Arts  and  Science."  In  1816  he  issued  a  paper 
entitled  a  "Plan  for  Electric  Telegraphy "  which  ante- 
dates any  other  American  suggestion  on  this  subject.  He 
further  wrote  on  "Phosphorus,"  "Observations  on  Crys- 
tallization," "On  Lead  Pipes,"  and  "On  the  Preparation 
of  Phosphuret  of  Lime." 

Reference  to  the  list  of  members  of  the  Columbian  Chem- 
ical Society  will  disclose  the  name  of  James  S.  Cutbush 
who  was  president,  for  a  while,  of  the  Society,  as  well 

223 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

as  Professor  of  Chemistry  in  the  U.  S.  Military  Academy 
at  West  Point,  and  before  that  time  at  St.  John's  College, 
Maryland.  He  wrote  (1822)  "On  the  Formation  of  Cyano- 
gen in  Some  Chemical  Processes  Not  Before  Noticed."  In 
this  paper  he  tells  of  getting  cyanogen  from  the  action  of 
nitric  acid  upon  charcoal.  He  published,  also,  papers  ' '  On' 
the  Composition  and  Properties  of  the  Chinese  Fire  and 
the  So-Called  Brilliant  Fires"  in  the  7th  volume  of  the 
American  Journal  of  Science,  and  "On  the  Composition 
and  Properties  of  Greek  Fire."  In  1813  he  issued  his 
"Philosophy  of  Experimental  Chemistry"  in  two  volumes. 

The  University  of  Virginia,  founded  about  1820,  had  as 
the  first  occupant  of  its  chemical  professorship  (1824-42), 
Dr.  J.  P.  Emmett  (1799-1842),  who  published  these  papers: 
"On  Iodide  of  Potassium  as  a  Test  for  Arsenic,"  "Upon 
the  Solvent  and  Oxidating  Powers  of  Ammoniacal  Salts," 
"Bromine  and  Iodine  in  Kanawha  Salts,"  "On  Formic 
Acid,"  and  "On  the  Solidification  of  Raw  Gypsum." 

In  New  York,  John  Griscom  (1774-1852),  whom  his  con- 
temporaries considered  to  be  the  best  of  teachers  in  chemis- 
try, contributed  abstracts  of  chemical  papers  to  the  Ameri- 
can Journal  of  Science,  but  there  are  no  records  of  his 
own  personal  investigations. 

One  of  the  contemporaries  of  Joseph  Cloud,  Dr.  William 
J.  McNevin  (1763-1841),  published  "An  Exposition  of  the 
Atomic  Theory,"  which  was  received  very  favorably,  and 
also  published  an  edition  of  Brande's  Chemistry.  In  addi- 
tion he  wrote  on  the  "Decomposition  of  Potash,"  "Chemi- 
cal Examination  of  the  Waters  of  Schooley's  Mountain," 
"On  the  Oxyacetate  of  Iron  as  a  Test  or  Reagent  for  the 
Discovery  of  Arsenic"  (1812). 

224 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

At  West  Point  during  this  period  was  "W.  W.  Mather 
(1804-1859),  probably  best  known  as  a  geologist,  as  he 
had  charge  of  the  geological  survey  of  the  first  district  of 
New  York  State.  He  died  while  President  of  Ohio  State 
University  at  Columbus,  0.  In  the  American  Journal  of 
Science  for  1835  he  contributed  a  memoir  entitled  "Con- 
tribution to  Chemical  Science"  and,  subsequently,  "Chlo- 
ride of  Aluminium  and  Its  Analysis, "  "  Hydrated  Chloride 
of  Aluminium,"  "Crystallized  Tin  from  Solution,"  "Geor- 
gia Gold,"  "Silver  of  Lane's  Mine,"  "Iodide  of  Potassium 
or  lodo-platinate  of  Potassium,"  "Chloriodide  of  Plati- 
num," "Crystallized  Perchloride  of  Platinum,"  "Amal- 
gam of  Platinum,"  "Iodide  of  Mercury,"  "Solubility  of 
Bitungstate  of  Ammonia,"  "Bisulphuret  of  Bismuth." 
It  is  an  exceedingly  interesting  memoir.  A  portion  of  the 
contribution  on  chloride  of  aluminium  relates  to  the  atomic 
weight  of  aluminium.  Indeed,  this  is  probably  the  first 
paper  on  atomic  weight  work  done  in  the  United  States. 
It  is  a  creditable  production  and,  when  we  consider  the 
period  in  which  it  was  carried  out,  1835,  it  was  probably 
the  most  original  research  in  pure  inorganic  chemistry 
made  by  an  American  chemist  up  to  that  time.  Many 
years  elapsed  before  any  other  American  published  atomic 
weight  determinations.  The  value  Mather  gave  for  alumin- 
ium is  27,  deduced  from  the  ratio  between  AgCl  and  A1C13, 
but  the  variations  between  the  determinations  are  great. 
One  need  merely  read  the  description  of  his  mode  of  pro- 
cedure to  understand  that  it  was  very  possible  for  him  to 
have  had  wide  differences  between  the  individual  results. 
There  was  no  attempt  made  to  obtain  pure  material,  and  no 
attention  given  to  the  defects  of  the  methods  of  analysis. 

225 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

The  computations  were  to  the  third  decimal  place  only. 
However,  it  was  an  effort  in  the  right  direction,  and  it  is 
interesting. 

Lewis  C.  Beck  (1798-1853),  another  mineralogical  chem- 
ist, prepared  a  "Mineralogy  of  the  State  of  New  York" 
as  early  as  1842.  The  analyses  reported  in  the  volume 
were  all  made  by  Beck.  In  1827  he  contributed  '  *  General 
Views  on  the  Formation  of  Phosphuretted  Hydrogen " ;  in 
1828,  "On  the  Nature  of  Bleaching  and  Disinfecting  Com- 
pounds "  -,  "  On  the  Functions  of  Nitrogen  in  Respiration ' ' ; 
1 1  On  the  Commercial  Potashes  of  New  York  " ;  * '  On  Wines 
and  Other  Fermented  Liquors";  and  "On  Adulterations 
of  Various  Substances  Used  in  Medicine  and  the  Arts." 
He  conducted  a  series  of  "Researches  on  the  Bread  Stuffs 
of  the  United  States,"  which  was  published  by  the  United 
States  Patent  Office  at  Washington.  He  was,  further,  the 
author  of  a  book  called  "A  Manual  of  Chemistry," 
published  in  1831.  This  book  passed  through  four 
editions. 

The  researches  of  J.  W.  Bailey  (1811-1857),  at  West 
Point,  were  of  such  a  character  that  many  would  not  place 
him  among  the  chemists  of  the  country.  These  were  prin- 
cipally "experiments  with  the  aid  of  the  microscope"; 
yet  he  published  a  test  for  nitric  acid,  a  paper  on  "Double 
Cyanide  and  Iodide  of  Mercury,"  "A  Test  for  Sulphure 
by  Playf air 's  Nitro-Prusside. ' '  He  was  skillful  in  the  use 
of  the  blowpipe  and  published  a  paper  "On  the  Common 
Blowpipe."  Nearly  all  of  his  contributions  appeared  in 
the  American  Journal  of  Science. 

It  would  seem  that  Samuel  Guthrie  (1782-1848),  of  New 
York,  discovered  chloroform  independently  of  Soubeiran, 

226 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

Liebig,   and  Dumas*      Hence  the  following  quotation  is 
quite  apropos. 

So  early  as  1796,  an  association  of  four  Dutch  chem- 
ists, who  had  already  discovered  the  rich  hydro-car- 
bon gas,  long  known  as  heavy  carburetted  hydrogen  gas, 
or  olefiant  gas,  and  now  called  ethylene  or  hydrogen-dicar- 
bide  (C2H4),  studied  the  effects  produced  from  mingling 
this  hydrocarbon  with  an  equal  volume  of  chlorine  gas 
over  water.  They  saw  that  the  volume  of  mixed  gases 
rapidly  diminished,  with  a  notable  elevation  of  tempera- 
ture and  the  appearance  of  a  dense  oily-looking  liquid, 
collecting  on  the  sides  of  the  bell- jar  and  the  surface  of 
the  water,  and  quickly  sinking  to  the  bottom.  Collecting 
this  oily  liquid  and  washing  it  clean  of  adhering  chlorine, 
in  alkaline  water,  and  in  pure  water,  it  was  found  to  be 
a  new  substance  of  a  highly  agreeable  ethereal  odor,  and 
distinctly  sweetish  aromatic  taste,  neutral  to  tests,  and 
nearly  insoluble  in  water,  to  which,  however,  it  imparted 
its  taste  and  odor,  but  quite  soluble  in  ether  and  alcohol. 
It  was  wholly  unaffected  by  concentrated  sulphuric  acid 
even  with  the  aid  of  heat.  For  many  years  its  real  con- 
stitution remained  unknown,  and  it  was  shown  only  as  one 
of  the  curiosities  of  the  chemist's  laboratory,  under  the 
name  of  "Oil  of  the  Dutch  Chemists";  the  name  olefiant 
gas  having  had  its  origin  from  the  oil  producing  property, 
which  this  gas  developed  in  its  action  with  chlorine.  Analy- 
sis has  long  since  shown  that  this  chlorine  compound  of 
the  Dutch  chemists  is  a  simple  union  of  one  molecule  of 
ethylene  with  two  atoms  of  chlorine,  and  that  it  may  prop- 
erly be  called  the  chloride  of  olefiant  gas.  I  have  been  the 
more  particular  in  noticing  the  discovery  of  this  remarkable 
substance  because  it  has  acquired  considerable  notoriety 
from  the  fact  that  it  was  early  and  most  naturally  con- 
founded with  chloroform,  to  which,  in  sensible  and  physio- 
logical properties,  it  bears  a  remarkable  resemblance.  It 

227 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

was  long,known  as  "Chloric  Ether,"  a  name  which  conveys 
a  false  meaning,  since  there  is  nothing  in  the  chemical  con- 
stitutfon  of  the  body  which  in  the  least  resembles  the  ethers. 

In  1831  appeared  the  second  volume  of  "Silliman's 
Elements  of  Chemistry,"  in  the  order  of  the  lectures  then 
given  in  Yale  College,  in  which  the  Dutch  liquid  was 
spoken  of  in  its  physiological  relations,  with  the  remark 
that,  "Its  medical  powers  have  not  been  ascertained,  but 
from  its  constitution  and  properties  it  is  highly  probable 
that  it  would  be  an  active  diffusive  stimulant." 

This  remark  immediately  attracted  the  attention  of  Dr. 
Samuel  Guthrie,  of  Sackett's  Harbour,  New  York,  a  man 
of  an  active  and  original  mind,  much  devoted  to  practical 
chemistry,  who  at  once  conceived  that  he  might  obtain  the 
so-called  "chloric  ether"  in  greater  abundance  and  at  a 
cheaper  cost  by  distilling  together  alcohol  and  chloride  of 
lime  (bleaching  powder).  His  success  was  remarkable,  and 
he  obtained  the  alcoholic  solution  (of  chloroform)  in  great 
abundance,  describing  his  process  in  a  short  article  in 
Silliman's  Journal  of  Science  for  January,  1832;  and  sub- 
sequently, in  July  of  the  same  year,  he  states  with  more 
detail  the  precautions  he  adopted  to  obtain  the  product 
pure,  and,  especially,  free  from  alcohol.  It  is  remarkable 
that  in  his  second  paper  he  describes  in  full  the  method  of 
testing  the  purity  of  the  substance  by  agitation  with  con- 
centrated sulphuric  acid.  There  is  no  question  that  Dr. 
Guthrie  was  entirely  original  in  his  method  of  producing 
"chloric  ether, "  as  it  was  then  called,  and  it  is  no  abatement 
of  his  sagacity  that  he  was  not  aware  that,  earlier  in  the 
same  year  in  which  he  described  his  process,  a  French  chem- 
ist, Mr.  Soubeiran,  had  devised  and  described  the  same 
method  in  a  memoir  entitled,  "Researches  on  Some  Com- 
binations of  Chlorine,"  which  appeared  in  the  Ann.  de 
Chimie  et  de  Phys.  for  Feb.  1831.  Soubeiran  called  the 
product  "a  new  ethereal  liquid  of  a  constitution  unlike 
any  before  known  to  chemists,"  and  also  gives  the  name 

228 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

chloric  ether  (ether  chlorique).  The  term  "chloric  ether" 
had  also  been  used  by  Dr.  Thomson  in  1820  to  describe  the 
oil  of  the  Dutch  Chemists.  Soubeiran  gave  two  analyses 
of  this  product,  which,  while  they  prove  that  the  body  is 
not  the  "Dutch  liquid/'  failed  to  reveal  its  true  constitu- 
tion, which  was  first  given  by  Dumas  in  1834,  in  a  memoir 
published  by  him  in  the  same  journal,  and  in  this  paper 
Dumas  then  gave  to  the  new  body  the  name  by  which  it 
has  ever  since  been  known,  chloroform. 

Such,  in  brief,  is  the  history  of  one  of  the  most  remark- 
able bodies  ever  discovered.  While  the  "chloric  ether" 
of  Guthrie  was  a  misnomer,  the  substance  which  he  pro- 
duced was  chloroform,  and  the  first  use  made  of  this  agent 
in  medical  practice  was  at  the  suggestion  of  Prof.  Silli- 
man,  to  Dr.  Eli  Ives,  formerly  Professor  of  Theory  and 
Practice  in  Yale  in  1832.  The  case  in  which  he  employed 
it  was  one  of  asthma  in  an  aged  person,  who  was  relieved 
of  a  severe  paroxysm  by  its  use  "more  suddenly  than  she 
had  been  in  any  previous  illness  of  the  kind."  Thus  the 
therapeutic  history  of  chloroform  had  its  commencement 
from  the  teachings  and  practice  of  the  Yale  Medical  School. 

The  question  of  absolute  priority  of  the  discovery  of 
chloroform  may  give  it  to  the  French  chemist  Soubeiran, 
but  a  committee  of  the  Medico- Chirurgical  Society,  of  Edin- 
burg,  have  awarded  to  Dr.  Guthrie  the  merit  of  having  first 
published  an  account  of  its  therapeutic  effects  as  a  diffusi- 
ble stimulant  in  1832.  Chloroform  may,  therefore,  fairly 
be  claimed  as  an  American  discovery.  Guthrie  also  ex- 
perimented with  a  boldness  and  rashness  in  the  preparation 
of  fulminating  compounds,  of  which  he  manufactured  large 
quantities,  of  various  and  original  constitution,  for  commer- 
cial purposes.  His  papers  on  this  subject  in  vol.  XXI. 
(1832)  of  the  American  Journal  of  Science  disclose  his 
power  as  an  originator  of  new  methods  in  chemistry.  This 
is  true,  also,  of  his  process  for  the  rapid  conversion  of  po- 
tato starch  into  sugar,  printed  in  the  same  volume. 

229 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

Another  striking  figure  was  Alexander  Dallas  Bache 
(1806-1867).  Philadelphia  was  his  birthplace.  At  fifteen 
years  of  age  he  was  appointed  a  cadet  in  the  Military  Acad- 
emy at  West  Point.  Subsequently,  he  became  a  professor 
in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania.  ' '  Bache  was  a  member 
of  the  Franklin  Institute  and  also  of  the  American  Philo- 
sophical Society.  He  erected  an  observatory  in  the  yard 
of  his  dwelling,  in  which,  with  the  aid  of  his  wife  and  his 
former  pupil,  John  F.  Frazer,  he  determined  with  ac- 
curacy, for  the  first  time  in  this  country,  the  periods  of 
the  daily  variations  of  the  magnetic  needle.  He  was  not 
destined  to  remain  in  his  position  in  the  University.  Be- 
fore he  had  become  fairly  settled  in  it  and  had  renewed  his 
familiarity  with  its  duties,  he  was  called  in  November, 
1843,  on  the  occasion  of  the  death  of  Mr.  Hassler,  Superin- 
tendent of  the  U.  S.  Coast  Survey,  to  fill  the  important 
sphere  of  public  duty  thus  made  vacant. "  He  died  in 
the  61st  year  of  his  age. 

His  papers  were  quite  numerous.  The  first  one,  in 
1829,  was  "On  the  Specific  Heat  of  the  Atoms  of  Bodies"; 
in  1830,  "On  the  Inflammation  of  Phosphorus  in  a  Partial 
Vacuum ";  in  1832,  "A  Translation  of  Berzelius'  Essay  on 
Chemical  Nomenclature."  In  molecular  physics  his 
"Inquiry  in  Relation  to  the  Alleged  Influence  of  Color 
on  the  Radiation  of  Non-luminous  Heat"  has  become 
a  classic.  It  is  almost  needless  to  say  that  he  proved  by 
it  the  fallacy  of  the  notion,  till  then  commonly  received, 
that  color  did  influence  the  radiation  of  non-luminous 
heat. 

Numerous  publications  from  William  J.  Taylor  (1833- 
1864)  appeared  in  the  "Proceedings  of  the  American 

230 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

Philosophical  Society."  These  relate,  chiefly,  to  minerals, 
and  there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  he  was  a  compe- 
tent analyst.  In  1845,  James  D.  Whelpley  printed  a  rather 
interesting  paper  entitled  "Idea  of  an  Atom,  Suggested 
by  the  Phenomena  of  Weight  and  Temperature."  This 
paper  is  regarded  as  of  great  importance  because  it,  in  a 
certain  sense,  antedates  Faraday's  publications  on  the 
nature  of  atoms. 

John  P.  Norton  (1822-1852),  teaching  in  Yale  in  1847, 
wrote  extensively  on  agricultural  chemistry,  so  that  he 
may  be  looked  upon  as  a  forerunner  in  that  subject  in  this 
country.  Under  his  teaching  sat  Wm.  H.  Brewer  and  S. 
"W.  Johnson,  who,  later,  became  pre-eminent  in  that  field 
of  chemistry.  While  among  the  first  to  give  attention  to 
agricultural  chemistry,  Norton  did  not  become  as  well 
known  in  this  field  as  Evan  Pugh  (1828-1864). 

The  following  biographical  sketch  was  written  by  W.  I. 
Waring  (1874)  : 

Pugh,  the  first  President  of  Pennsylvania  State 
College,  was,  at  19  years  of  age,  a  blacksmith's  apprentice. 
He  bought  out  the  residue  of  his  time  and  supported  him- 
self by  manual  labour  while  he  received  a  year's  instruc- 
tion at  the  seminary  of  Whitestown,  N.  Y.  He  had  fallen 
heir  to  a  small  estate,  including  a  private  school,  at  Oxford, 
Chester  Co.  Pa.  and  moving  hence,  he  conducted  the  school 
successfully  for  about  two  years. 

In  1853  he  decided  to  sell  his  estate  and  academy, 
which  had  become  under  his  management  a  flourishing  in- 
stitution, in  order  to  obtain  means  by  which  he  might  se- 
cure for  himself  a  European  course  of  scientific  instruction. 
He  went  the  same  year  to  Europe  and  spent  four  years  in 
the  universities  of  Leipsic,  Goettingen,  and  Heidelberg,  and 

231 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

in  Paris.     At  Goettingen  he  honorably  sustained  the  ex- 
aminations for  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Philosophy. 

He  contributed  ' '  Hamatinsalpetersaure  identisch  mit 
Pikraminsaure, "  "  Miscellaneous  Chemical  Analyses, "  ' '  On 
a  New  Method  of  Estimating  Nitric  Acid,"  "On  the 
Sources  of  Nitrogen  of  Vegetation  with  Special  Reference 
to  the  Question  Whether  Plants  Assimilate  Free  or  Uncom- 
bined  Nitrogen."  The  last  investigation  was  made  in  con- 
nection with  Messrs.  Lawes  and  Gilbert.  It  was  while 
Pugh  was  in  Paris  that  he  wrote  to  Lawes  announcing  that 
he  was  ready  to  take  up  the  study  of  this  question,  because 
it  was  one  that  was  being  widely  discussed  in  France. 
Lawes,  of  course,  said  that  he  was  willing  to  have  the  mat- 
ter looked  into,  and  invited  Pugh  to  come  to  his  laboratory, 
paying  all  expenses.  The  question  which  Pugh  undertook 
to  decide  was  one  that  had  been  raised  more  than  half  a 
century  before  by  Priestley  and  Ingenhouse,  on  the  one 
hand,  who  thought  they  had  observed  that  plants  absorbed 
the  free  nitrogen  of  the  atmosphere,  and  Sennebier  and 
Woodhouse,  on  the  other  hand,  who  negatived  this  opinion. 
In  1837,  the  matter  was  studied  again  by  Boussingault,  who 
had  the  sagacity  to  apprehend  the  importance  of  closely 
investigating  the  sources  of  the  nitrogen  periodically 
yielded  by  a  given  area  of  land,  over  and  above  that  which 
was  artificially  supplied  to  it.  After  a  series  of  experi- 
ments, extending  over  a  period  of  17  years,  Boussingault 
concluded  that  plants  did  not  assimilate  free  nitrogen.  But 
it  happened,  in  the  meantime,  that  M.  Georges  Ville,  of 
Paris,  had,  from  a  series  of  investigations  made  by  him 
from  1849  to  1852,  which  seemed  to  show  an  enormous 
assimilation  of  nitrogen  by  the  plants  with  which  he  ex- 

232 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

perimented  that  could  not  be  accounted  for  otherwise  by 
him,  announced  that  the  free  nitrogen  of  the  atmosphere 
was  assimilated  by  vegetation.  Such  strikingly  different 
results  at  once  excited  great  interest  among  chemists  and 
vegetable  physiologists,  and  a  commission  was  appointed 
from  the  French  Academy  of  Sciences  to  superintend  the 
conducting,  under  M.  Ville,  of  a  new  set  of  experiments 
at  the  Museum  d'Histoire  Naturelle  in  1854-5.  The  report 
of  this  commission  only  tended  to  confirm  the  conclusions 
already  drawn  by  M.  Ville. 

The  researches,  however,  which  were  instituted  by  Pugh, 
and  to  which  he  devoted  two  years  of  nearly  constant  labor, 
were  characterized  with  such  comprehensiveness  in  their 
detail,  skill,  and  ingenuity  in  the  construction  of  apparatus 
and  cautions  against  error,  and,  withal,  such  a  rare  degree 
of  penetration  to  discover  the  many  collateral  questions 
involved,  and  acuteness  in  their  solution,  that  the  conclu- 
sions which  they  established  have  never  since  been  ques- 
tioned. 

He  returned  home,  in  1859,  to  assume  a  position  which 
had  been  offered  him — the  presidency  of  the  Agricultural 
College  of  Pennsylvania  (Pennsylvania  State  College). 
Willingly  renouncing  the  brilliant  career  which  he  was 
doubtless  aware  lay  before  him  in  case  he  should  continue 
his  researches,  he  recognized  the  duty  he  owed  his  country, 
and  assumed  the  nobler  and  more  enduring  work.  It  was 
a  controlling  idea  with  him  that  the  teacher  lives  a  second 
generation  in  the  mental  development  of  the  taught,  and 
that  to  be  a  benefactor  to  his  race  the  student  must  be  the 
medium  through  which  he  should  operate  upon  the  great 
world  around  him. 

233 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

When  Pugh  assumed  the  presidency  of  the  new  college 
the  expediency  of  combining  manual  labor  with  thorough 
study  in  an  institution  of  learning  was  an  open  question, 
all  previous  attempts  of  the  kind,  both  in  Europe  and 
America,  having  resulted  in  signal  failures.  He  had,  how- 
ever, perfect  faith  in  a  system  which  he  believed  was  cal- 
culated, above  all  others,  to  develop  mental  and  physical 
strength  as  well  as  practical  knowledge.  Referring  once 
to  the  well  known  fact  that  it  is  not  sufficient  to  have  spent 
a  certain  number  of  years  within  the  walls  of  a  college  or 
university  in  order  to  secure  a  respectable  education,  he 
said,  "An  English  friend,  himself  a  university  graduate, 
once  remarked  to  me  that  he  could  point  to  artisans  in 
the  workshops  of  England  with  better  trained  minds,  as 
evinced  by  greater  power  of  following  up  any  connected 
train  of  thought,  than  could  be  found  with  many  persons 
who  had  spent  years  at  the  time-honored  universities  of 
Oxford  or  Cambridge. " 

With  the  eyes  of  the  friends  of  agricultural  education  in 
every  civilized  country  resting  upon  the  experiment,  he 
had  the  courage  to  undertake  to  demonstrate  its  practic- 
ability. He  had  previously  visited  and  carefully  studied 
the  chief  agricultural  academies  and  schools  of  Europe, 
and  his  idea  of  what  an  American  agricultural  college 
should  be  was  as  definite  as  it  was  comprehensive  and  just. 
He  found  the  college  a  struggling  institution,  its  buildings 
not  half  finished,  and  its  exchequer  awaiting  the  action  of 
a  hesitating  legislature  for  funds  to  carry  on  the  enter- 
prise. With  characteristic  energy  he  organized  a  new  plan 
of  instruction,  planned  and  superintended  the  erection  of 
the  college  buildings,  secured  endowments,  and,  besides  tak- 

234 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

ing  the  general  guidance  of  the  institution,  he  gave  instruc- 
tion and  superintended  the  practical  investigations  of  the 
students  in  chemistry,  scientific  agriculture,  mineralogy, 
and  geology. 

He  had  just  succeeded  in  establishing  a  thoroughly  scien- 
tific institution  upon  a  broad  and  enduring  basis,  and  in 
convincing  a  sceptical  public  of  the  ultimate  success  of  such 
a  noble  enterprise,  when  death  cut  short  his  work  at  the 
age  of  36. 

Charles  M.  Wetherill  (1825-1871),  of  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania,  wrote  "On  the  Neutral  Sulphates  of  Ethyl- 
oxide,  Their  Decomposition  Products  with  Water, "  "  Anal- 
ysis of  the  Subsulphate  of  Cinchona,"  "Experiments  with 
Ammonium  Amalgam,"  "On  the  Existence  of  the  (so- 
called)  Ammonium  Amalgams,"  "Concretion  from  the 
Stomach  of  a  Horse,"  "Molybdate  of  Lead,"  "Food  of  the 
Queen  Bee,"  "Mexican  Honey  Ant,"  "A  New  Apparatus 
for  the  Determination  of  Carbonic  Acid,"  "Examination 
of  Fusel  Oil  from  Indian  Corn,"  etc.  He  studied  under 
Liebig. 

In  this  connection  a  paragraph  may  be  devoted  to  the 
Rogers  brothers.  Years  ago  there  lived  in  Philadelphia 
an  Irishman  by  the  name  of  Patrick  Rogers,  who,  in  due 
course,  graduated  from  the  Medical  School  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania,  and  practiced  medicine  on  Lom- 
bard Street  for  a  few  years.  He  had  four  sons,  William 
B.,  Henry  D.,  Robert  E.,  and  James  B.  At  a  very  early 
age  they  went  South  with  their  father,  who  was  called  to 
teach  Chemistry  in  one  of  the  medical  colleges  of  Baltimore, 

235 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

and  later  in  the  College  of  William  and  Mary,  where  he 
succeeded  Robert  Hare.  There  is  no  record  of  any  scientific 
work  done  by  the  father,  but,  when  we  consider  his  sons, 
American  scientists  may  well  honor  the  name  of  Rogers. 

William  B.  was  the  founder  and  first  president  of  the 
Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology.  Henry  D.  was 
Chief  of  the  Geological  Survey  of  Pennsylvania,  and  after- 
ward Professor  of  Geology  in  the  University  of  Glasgow. 
James  was  more  active  in  the  promotion  of  technical  or 
applied  chemistry,  especially  in  Philadelphia,  where  he 
followed  the  application  of  that  science  and  succeeded  to 
a  remarkable  degree.  Upon  the  death  of  Robert  Hare,  he 
became  his  successor. 

The  fourth  and  youngest  son,  Robert  E.,  was  the  chemist 
of  the  four.  William  B.,  the  elder,  was  as  a  father  to  Rob- 
ert, and  it  was  under  the  direction  of  William  and  James 
that  Robert  E.  received  his  training.  His  first  chemical 
work  was  done  when  an  assistant  chemist  on  the  Geological 
Survey,  of  which  his  brother,  Henry  D.,  was  the  Chief.  In 
the  Journal  of  the  Franklin  Institute,  1840,  there  appeared 
a  paper  on  the  determination  of  calcium  as  sulphate  by 
Robert  E.  and  Martin  Boye.  The  new  method  described 
by  them  is  simply  the  precipitation  of  calcium  by  means 
of  sulphuric  acid  and  alcohol,  while  the  second  part  of  the 
paper  relates  to  the  separation  of  calcium  from  magnesium 
by  the  same  method. 

It  may  not  be  out  of  place  to  note  that  Martin  Boye  was 
a  Swede,  who  had  graduated  from  one  of  the  schools  of 
technology  in  his  country,  and  later  (1844)  took  the  degree 
of  Doctor  of  Medicine  from  the  University  of  Pennsylvania, 
and  became  a  professor  in  the  Boys '  High  School  in  Phila- 

236 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

delphia.  He  wrote  on  the  "Oxide  of  Cobalt,  with  Brown 
Hematite,  of  Chester  Ridge,  Pa./'  "Analysis  of  the  Bittern 
of  a  Saline  on  the  Kiskiminetas  River,  Near  Freeport,  Pa.," 
"On  the  Perchlorate  of  the  Oxide  of  Ethyl,  or  Perchloric 
Ether,"  two  papers;  "On  Magnesium  Limestones,"  two 
papers;  "New  Compounds  of  Deuto-chloride  of  Platinum, 
Nitric  Oxide,  and  Chlorohydric  Acid,"  two  papers.  There 
were  others  of  minor  importance. 

But  to  return  to  Robert  E.  Rogers  (1813-1884).  In  con- 
junction with  his  brother,  William  B.,  he  worked  out,  at 
the  University  of  Virginia,  the  method  that  is  to-day  used 
and  known  as  the  wet  method  for  the  determination  of 
carbon.  They  employed  it  in  the  analysis  of  graphite  and 
held  that  it  was  possible  to  use  it  in  the  analysis  of  the 
diamond.  The  method  of  oxidizing  alcohol  to  aldehyde 
by  the  use  of  bichromate  of  potash  and  sulphuric  acid  was 
developed  by  Robert  E.  and  William  B.  Rogers.  One  of 
the  methods  given  in  exhaustive  treatises  on  Chemistry  for 
the  preparation  of  chlorine  consists  in  heating  bichromate 
of  potash  with  concentrated  hydrochloric  acid.  This 
method,  also,  was  suggested  and  developed  by  Robert  Rog- 
ers. While  a  student  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania, 
pursuing  chemistry  under  Robert  Hare,  he  presented  a 
rather  remarkable  thesis.  In  the  section  of  it  relating  to 
the  action  of  animal  and  vegetable  tissues,  one  reads: 

My  first  object  of  attention  has  been  to  find  whether  or  not 
there  is  a  disparity  in  the  rate  of  passage  of  gases  through 
different  structures.  For  this  purpose  four  short  tubes 
were  chosen,  equal  in  length  and  diameter.  A  portion  of 
fresh  cuticle  recently  separated  from  the  cutis  vera  was 
tied  across  one  end  of  the  first.  Over  the  second  was  fas- 

237 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

tened  a  portion  of  peritoneum,  over  the  third  was  a  piece  of 
mucous  membrane,  and  over  the  fourth  a  very  thin  section 
of  liver.  These  tubes  being  thus  prepared  and  arranged 
over  a  mercurial  trough,  an  equal  measure  of  carbonic  acid 
was  passed  up  into  each;  a  glass  vessel  was  inverted  over 
each  of  the  tubes  and  filled  with  oxygen  six  times  in  volume 
of  the  carbonic  acid  in  each  tube.  The  opposite  sides  of 
the  organic  structures  were  thus  in  contact  with  different 
gaseous  atmospheres.  A  rise  of  the  mercury  in  each  of  the 
tubes  was  soon  perceived,  and  the  rate  of  movement  was 
seen  to  be  distinctly  different  in  each.  At  the  end  of 
thirty  minutes  the  experiment  was  suspended,  being 
deemed  satisfactory,  and  the  mercury  in  the  several  tubes 
stood  nearly  as  represented  in  the  figure.  We  here  per- 
ceive that  from  the  third  tube,  where  the  mucous  mem- 
brane was  used,  was  the  largest  escape  of  the  contained  car- 
bonic acid;  a  less  proportion  passed  through  the  cuticle, 
a  less  share  still  through  the  peritoneum,  and  the  least  of 

all  through  the  section  of  liver These  inquiries 

were  repeated  and  extended  to  other  membranes  with  sim- 
ilar results As  a  deduction  of  the  preceding  de- 
termination, it  seemed  highly  probable  that  by  the  use  of 
certain  tissues  we  might  effect  a  separation  of  a  particular 
gas  from  a  mixture  of  two  or  more,  so  that  by  varying  the 
tissue  we  might  eliminate  any  gas  at  will,  performing  a 
species  of  proximate  analysis.  To  test  the  truth  of  such  an 
inference,  two  tubes  were  taken,  and  being  bent  into  a 
rectangular  elbow,  one  extremity  of  each  was  closed  by  a 
plate  of  metal  perforated  by  a  small  round  hole,  corre- 
sponding to  the  caliber  of  the  tube.  A  membrane  being 
placed  between  the  plates,  they  were  then  tightly  clamped 
together.  Thus  arranged,  I  introduced  into  the  leg  of  one 
of  the  tubes  a  measure  of  carbonic  acid,  a  measure  of  oxy- 
gen, and  a  measure  of  hydrogen;  and  four  measures  of 
nitrogen  were  made  to  enter  the  other.  The  tissue  em- 
ployed in  the  first  instance  was  mucous  membrane.  In 

238 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

fifteen  minutes  the  mercury  stood  elevated  in  the  first  tube 
and  depressed  in  the  second;  and  the  experiment  being 
stopped,  the  contents  of  the  latter  were  examined.  It  was 
found  that  nearly  the  whole  augmentation  of  volume  in 
this  tube  was  due  to  carbonic  acid.  Cellular  tissue  was 
now  substituted  in  place  of  the  mucous  membrane,  and 
after  a  longer  time  than  in  the  previous  case,  when  a  sim- 
ilar change  had  arisen  in  the  volume  of  gas  in  the  two 
tubes,  the  contents  of  that  tube  which  previously  held  the 
nitrogen  were  inspected,  and  were  found  to  consist  of  some 
carbonic  acid,  a  still  greater  proportion  of  oxygen,  and  all 
the  nitrogen  previously  present.  These  experiments  were 
extended  to  vegetable  tissues and  always  the  gen- 
eral results  were  analogous  to  those  above  in  showing  a 
diversity  of  action  according  to  the  particular  tissue  and 
gases  employed. 

This  story  of  the  diffusion  of  gases  through  membranes 
naturally  suggested  an  extension  of  these  laws  of  action  to 
liquids,  and,  by  a  unique  series  of  experiments,  involving 
the  use  of  most  diverse  apparatus,  he  obtained  the  most 
convincing  evidence  of  "the  existence  of  an  agency  con- 
trolling the  transmission  of  certain  fluids  in  preference  to 
others. "  "Perceiving  that  in  many  instances  the  liquids 
performed  their  movements  in  opposition  to  gravity,  I 
was  curious  to  ascertain  if  they  would  be  able  to  overcome 
a  greater  mechanical  resistance. ' '  The  result  of  his  experi- 
ments led  him  to  say  that  "the  force  of  transmission  in 
this  case  (potassium  sulphate)  could  not  have  been  less 
than  four  atmospheres,  and  we  are  entitled  to  conclude  that 
it  would  have  been  still  greater  had  the  membrane  with- 
stood the  pressure The  laws  of  the  transmission 

of  fluids  through  organic  structures  are  exhibited  in  re- 

239 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

suits  which  are  equivalent  to  a  species  of  chemical  decom- 
position." He  next,  by  use  of  membranes,  proceeded  to 
separate  gold,  silver,  and  several  other  metals  from  their 
solutions,  and  was  "led  irresistibly  to  attribute  an  im- 
portant office  to  the  membrane  itself. " 

The  remainder  of  the  investigation  is  marked  by  the  same 
leaning  toward  experimentation,  preferring  rather  that  ex- 
perimental results  should  guide  in  deducing  his  theoretical 
observations  than  uncertain  speculation.  This  product  of 
Robert  Rogers '  venture  into  the  field  of  investigation  shows 
great  manipulative  skill  and  the  spirit  of  the  true  re- 
searcher. "Whether  the  hand  of  the  master,  Robert  Hare, 
was  in  any  manner  concerned  in  the  progress  of  the  study 
is  not  indicated.  It  seems  to  be  an  entirely  independent 
contribution,  and  well  deserved  the  recognition  it  received 
from  the  faculty  to  which  it  was  presented. 

The  bibliography  of  Robert  Rogers  is  as  follows: 

1.  On  the  Alleged  Insolubility  of  Copper  in  Hydrochloric 

Acid,  Etc.,  Jour.   Sci.  and  Arts,  2d  Ser.,  Vol.  VI 
(1848),  p.  395. 

2.  On  the  Absorption  of  Carbonic  Acid  Gas  by  Sulphuric 

Acid,  Etc.    Chem.  Gazette,  Vol.  VI,  p.  477. 

3.  On  the  Volatility  of  Potassa  and  Soda  and  Their  Car- 

bonates. Proc.  Am.  Assoc.  Adv.  of  Sci.  (1848),  p.  36. 

4.  On  the  Decomposition  of  Rocks  by  Meteoric  Agents, 

Etc.  Am.  Jour.  Sci.  and  Arts,  2d  Ser.,  Vol.  V,  p.  401. 

5.  On  the  Absorption  of  Carbonic  Acid  by  Liebig's  Dilute 

Solution  of  Phosphate  of  Soda.  Proc.   Am.  Assn. 
Adv.  of  Sci.  (1848),  p.  62. 

6.  On  the  Comparative  Solubility  of  Carbonate  of  Line, 

Etc..  Proc.  Am.  Assn.  Adv.  of  Sci.  (1848),  p.  95. 

7.  On  the  Absorption  of  Carbonic  Acid  by  Acids  and 

240 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

Saline  Substances.  Proc.  Am.  Assoc.  Adv.  of  Sci. 
(1850),  p.  298. 

8.  Experiments  on  the  Blood,  Etc.,  Am.  Jour.  Med.  Sci., 

Vol.  XVII,  p.  277. 

9.  On  a  New  Process  for  Obtaining  Pure  Chlorine  Gas. 

Am.  Jour.  Sci.  and  Arts,  2d  Ser.,  Vol.  I  (1846),  p. 
428. 

10.  Report  on  the  Consolidated  Virginia  and  California 

Mines,  in  Annual  Report  of  the  Director  of  the  Mint 
(1875),  p.  81. 

11.  Report  on  the  Equipment  of  the  New  Refinery  in  the 

Mint  at  San  Francisco,  Annual  Report  of  the  Di- 
rector of  the  Mint  (1875),  p.  83. 

12.  On  a  New  Process  for  Obtaining  Formic  Acid,  Etc., 

Am.  Jour.  Sci.  and  Arts,  2d  Ser.,  Vol.  11(1846),  p.  18. 

13.  On  a  New  Process  for  Analyzing  Graphite,  Etc.,  Am. 

Jour.  Sci.  and  Arts,  2d  Ser.,  Vol.  V  (1848),  p.  352. 

14.  Oxidation  of  the  Diamond  in  the  Liquid  Way,  Am. 

Jour.  Sci.  and  Arts,  2d  Ser.,  Vol.  VI  (1848), •  p.  110. 

15.  On  the  Decomposition  and  Partial  Solution  of  Minerals, 

Etc.,  by  Pure  "Water.  Am.  Jour.  Sci.  and  Arts,  2d 
Ser.,  V  (1848),  p.  401. 

16.  On  the  Use  of  Hydrogen  Gas  to  Displace  Sulphuretted 

Hydrogen  in  the  Analysis  of  Mineral  Waters.  Am. 
Jour.  Sci.  and  Arts,  2d  Ser.,  Vol.  XVIII  (1854), 
p.  213. 

17.  On  the  Analysis  of  Limestones,  Etc.,  Jour.  Frank.  Inst., 

Vol.  XXV  (1840),  p.  158. 

18.  Report  upon  the  Wastage  of  Silver  Bullion,  Etc.   Gov. 

Printing  Office,  1872. 

19.  Report  on  Dynamo-electric  Machines.    Jour.  Franklin 

Inst.,  3d  Ser.,  Vol.  XXV   (1878),  p.  289. 

20.  Report  of  the  Committee  on  the  Precautions  to  Be 

Taken  to  Obviate  the  Dangers  of  Electric  Lighting. 
Jour.  Franklin  Inst.,  3d  Ser.,  Vol.  XXXII  (1881), 
p.  401. 

241 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

Theodore  G.  Wormley  (1826-1897)  succeeded  Robert  E. 
Rogers  as  Professor  of  Chemistry  in  the  Medical  School 
of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania.  His  first  professional 
appointment  came  in  the  year  1852,  when  he  was  elected 
to  the  Chair  of  Chemistry  and  Natural  Science  in  the 
Capitol  University,  Columbus,  Ohio.  This  position  he  held 
until  July,  1865.  During  the  same  period  he  also  held  the 
professorship  of  Chemistry  and  Toxicology  in  Starling 
Medical  College,  to  which  he  had  been  elected  in  1854,  and 
from  which  he  resigned  after  twenty-three  years  of  most 
satisfactory  work.  The  hours  not  devoted  to  teaching  or 
research  were  occupied  in  the  discharge  of  appointments, 
for  which  his  qualifications  admirably  fitted  him,  such  as 
State  Gas  Commissioner  of  Ohio  (1867-1875),  and  Chemist 
of  the  Geological  Survey  of  Ohio  (1869-1874).  In  both 
these  positions  he  rendered  most  distinguished  service,  as 
is  amply  evidenced  by  the  various  State  Reports  in  which 
his  records  are  published. 

His  acknowledged  reputation  as  a  teacher  and  toxicolo- 
gist  led  to  his  election,  on  June  5,  1877,  to  the  Chair  of 
Chemistry  and  Toxicology  in  the  Medical  Department  of 
the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  thereby  becoming  the  di- 
rect and  worthy  successor  of  such  eminent  men  as  Benja- 
min Rush,  James  Hutchinson,  James  Woodhouse,  J.  Red- 
man Coxe,  Robert  Hare,  and  Robert  E.  Rogers.  And  here  he 
continued  until  the  morning  of  January  3, 1897,  when  the 
final  summons  came,  and  the  earnest,  ever-active  master  laid 
aside  the*working  tools  of  life  to  penetrate  the  veil  which 
separates  us  and  the  present  from  the  great  hereafter. 

The  results  of  his  researches  appeared  under  the  fol- 
lowing titles: 

242 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

1.  On   Some   of   the   Chemical   Reactions  of   Strychnia. 

Chem.  News,  1860. 

2.  Notes  on  Some  of  the  Chemical  Reactions  of  Atropine. 

Chem.  News,  1860. 

3.  Notes  on  Some  of  the  Chemical  Reactions  of  Brucine. 

Chem.  News,  1860. 

4.  Chemical  Reactions  of   Corrosive   Sublimate.     Chem. 

News,  1860. 

5.  Chemical  Reactions  of  Morphia.    Chem.  News,  1860. 

6.  Chemical  Reactions  of  Narcotine  and  Meconic  Acid. 

Chem.  News,  1860. 

7.  Nobert's  Test  Plate  and  the 'Striae  of  Diatoms.    Chem. 

News,  1861. 

8.  Quantitative  Estimation  of  Urea.     Chem.  News,  1882. 

9.  Recovery  of  Absorbed  Morphia  from  Blood.     Chem. 

News,  1891. 

10.  A  Contribution  to  Our  Knowledge  of  the  Chemical 

Composition     of     Gelsemium.       Am.     J.     Pharm., 
1870. 

11.  Alkaloids  of  Veratrum  Viride  and  Alum.    Am.  Jour. 

Pharm.,  1876. 

12.  Preparation  and  Toxic  Effects  of  Gelsemia.     Am.  J. 

Pharm.,  1877. 

13.  Reinsch's  Test  Fallacies.    Am.  J.  Pharm.,  1880. 

14.  Constitution  of  Gelsemium.     Am.  J.  Pharm.,  1882. 

15.  Some  of  the  Chemical  Properties  of  Mydriatic  Alka- 

loids.   Am.  J.  Pharm.,  1894. 

16.  Tests  for  Quinine.    Am.  J.  Pharm.,  1894. 

17.  Recovery  of  Absorbed  Morphine  from  the  Urine,  the 

^lood,  and  the  Tissues.    Univ.  Med.  Mag.,  1889-90. 

18.  Cv ,.  mordant   and    Micrometric    Measurements.      Univ. 

Med.  Mag.,  1890-91.  . 

19.  Chemical  Analysis  of  Coals,  Iron  Ores,  Etc.    Ohio  Geol. 

Survey,  1870. 

Editor  of  the  Ohio  Medical  and  Surgical  Journal,  1862- 
186 1. 

243 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

These,  in  a  measure,  indicate  the  direction  of  his  activity, 
but  the  lasting  monument  which  he  raised  to  science  and 
his  own  glory  is  his  ' '  Micro-Chemistry  of  Poisons. "  In  it 
are  embodied  the  records  of  thousands  of  the  most  pains- 
taking observations.  The  patience  displayed  in  the  prepar- 
ation of  this  volume  of  world-wide  reputation — the  recog- 
nized authority  in  all  lands — is  marvellous.  It  is  interest- 
ing also  to  note  that  in  this,  his  greatest  effort,  he  was 
assisted  by  his  devoted  wife,  who  learned  the  art  of  steel 
engraving  solely  for  the  purpose  of  delineating  upon  steel 
nearly  one  hundred  exquisite  illustrations  of  crystals, 
drawn  directly  from  the  object  as  observed  under  the  micro- 
scope. 

Wormley  was  the  recipient  of  many  honors,  and  received 
elections  to  many  scientific  societies.  He  was  one  of  the 
vice-presidents  of  the  Centennial  of  Chemistry,  held  at 
Northumberland,  Pa.,  in  1874;  a  member  and  vice-presi- 
dent of  the  American  Chemical  Society;  a  member  of  the 
American  Philosophical  Society;  a  member  of  the  Ameri- 
can Metrological  Society;  a  corresponding  member  of  the 
New  York  Medico-Legal  Society;  a  Fellow  of  the  College 
of  Physicians,  Philadelphia ;  a  Fellow  of  the  American  As- 
sociation for  the  Advancement  of  Science ;  and  a  Fellow  of 
the  Chemical  Society  of  London. 


CHAPTER   XI 

. 

A  POTENT  factor  in  American  chemistry  was  James  C. 
Booth  (1810-1888),  of  Philadelphia.  Deciding  to 
follow  chemistry  as  a  profession,  he  went  to  Germany  in 
December,  1832,  and  entered  Frederick  Wohler's  private 
laboratory  in  Cassel,  there  being  at  that  time  no  university 
laboratories  arranged  for  the  regular  reception  of  students ; 
and  it  is  believed  that  he  was  the  first  American  student 
to  study  analytical  chemistry  in  Germany.  After  a  year 
with  Wohler,  he  went  to  Berlin,  and  spent  an  equal  amount 
of  time  with  Gustav  Magnus.  The  remainder  of  his  three 
years  abroad  was  devoted  to  the  practical  study  of  chem- 
istry applied  to  the  arts  in  the  manufacturing  centers  of 
the  Continent  and  England. 

With  an  education  probably  unequalled  at  that  time  by 
any  chemist  in  America,  he  returned  to  the  United  States, 
and,  in  1836,  established  in  Philadelphia  a  laboratory  for 
instruction  in  chemical  analysis  and  applied  chemistry. 
This  institution  soon  acquired  considerable  distinction,  be- 
ing the  first  of  its  kind  in  this  country,  and  during  the 
course  of  a  few  years  nearly  fifty  students  availed  them- 
selves of  his  instruction,  most  of  whom  have  since  acquired 
distinction.  The  list  included  John  F.  Frazer,  professor 
of  chemistry  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in  1844-72 ; 
Thomas  H.  Garrett,  who  became  his  partner  in  the  analyti- 
cal business  and  survived  him ;  Robert  E.  Rogers,  professor 

245 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

of  chemistry  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in  1852- 
77,  etc. 

At  first  he  was  assisted  by  Dr.  Martin  H.  Boye,  who  re- 
mained with  him  until  1845,  and  in  1848,  Thomas  H.  Gar- 
rett  became  his  associate.  The  latter  continued  to  manage 
the  analytical  part  of  the  business  until  1881,  when  An- 
drew A.  Blair  joined  the  firm.  The  business  was  then  con- 
ducted under  the  title  of  Booth,  Garrett,  and  Blair ;  it  was 
known  for  the  high  grade  of  analytical  work  performed, 
especially  in  the  examination  and  determination  of  iron 
ores. 

In  1849  Booth  received  the  appointment  of  melter  and 
refiner  at  the  U.  S.  Mint  in  Philadelphia,  which  office  he 

held  until  his  death In  his  official  capacity  he  was 

frequently  consulted  by  the  government  on  questions  per- 
taining to  chemistry,  and  his  studies  on  the  nickel  ores  of 
Pennsylvania  led,  in  1856,  to  the  adoption  of  nickel  as  one 
of  the  components  of  the  alloys  used  in  the  coinage  of  the 
cent  issued  in  that  year. 

During  1837-39  he  had  charge  of  the  geological  survey 
of  the  State  of  Delaware.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
American  Philosophical  Society  and  of  the  Philadelphia 
Academy  of  Sciences.  He  also  served  as  President  of  the 
American  Chemical  Society  from  1884  to  1885. 

An  active  participant  in  the  upbuilding  of  chemistry  in 
America  was  T.  Sterry  Hunt  (1826-1892),  of  whom  Dr. 
Marcus  Benjamin  writes  so  charmingly  that  his  words 
will  be  given: 

The  name  of  no  American  chemist  occurs  more  fre- 
quently, or  in  a  more  important  relation  to  the  progress 

246 


JAMES  C.  BOOTH 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

and  development  of  our  science,  than  that  of  Dr.  Hunt. 
His  contributions  to  our  science  have  been  equally  valuable 
in  theoretical  chemistry,  in  chemical  philosophy,  and  in 
geological  and  mineralogical  chemistry. 

He  was  born  in  Norwich,  Conn His  early  edu- 
cation was  acquired  in  Norwich,  but  he  was  attracted  to 
New  Haven  by  the  fame  of  the  scientific  development  there 
in  progress  under  the  elder  Silliman.  He  accepted,  in  1847, 
the  post  as  chemist  and  mineralogist  to  the  Geological  Sur- 
vey of  Canada,  which  place  he  held  for  twenty-five  years. 
He  also  occupied  the  chair  of  chemistry  in  Laval  Uni- 
versity, Quebec,  from  1856  to  1862,  delivering  the  lectures 
in  French;  and,  thereafter,  until  1868,  he  filled  a  similar 
appointment  at  McGill  University,  in  Montreal.  In  1872 
he  returned  to  the  United  States  and  accepted  the  chair  of 
geology  in  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology  made 
vacant  by  the  resignation  of  William  B.  Rogers.  This  ap- 
pointment he  held  until  1878,  since  when  he  devoted  his 
attention  chiefly  to  expert  work  and  literary  pursuits. 

No  author  has  covered  a  wider  range  in  chemistry  than 
he.  Not  less  than  one  hundred  and  thirty  entries  are 
found  under  his  name  in  the  second  and  third  series  of  the 
American  Journal  of  Science;  and,  adding  those  published 
in  Canada*  England,  and  France,  and  some  memoirs  in  the 
proceedings  of  various  American  Societies,  the  total  roll  of 
his  papers  amounts  to  about  one  hundred  and  sixty  titles. 

The  views  of  Laurent  and  Gerhardt  found  their  first  ad- 
vocacy in  this  country  at  the  hands  of  Hunt  in  his  able 
review  of  the  Precis  of  the  latter  in  1847,  and  his  own 
papers  in  the  years  next  following  have  contributed  in  no 
small  degree  to  extend  the  bounds  of  theoretical  chemistry 
and  its  philosophy.  Particular  mention  may  be  made  of 
his  paper  1.  On  the  Anomalies  in  the  Atomic  Volume  of 
Sulphur  and  Nitrogen,  in  1848.  This  paper  contains  also 
remarks  on  chemical  classification  and  a  notice  of  Laurent 's 
Theory  of  Binary  Molecules.  In  his  paper  2.  On  Some 

247 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

Principles  to  Be  Considered  in  Chemical  Classification, 
read  at  the  Philadelphia  meeting  of  the  American  Associa- 
tion in  1848,  Hunt  freely  criticizes  the  systems  of  Liebig 
and  of  the  French  School,  the  rather  to  show  their  merits 
than  their  defects,  and  to  exhibit  their  real  harmony  with 
each  other  and  with  nature.  In  this  paper  he  advances 
his  own  views,  showing  what  is  now  recognized  as  the  true 
constitution  of  gaseous  nitrogen — NN — and  that  the  vari- 
ous saline  forms  are  reducible  to  two,  the  types  of  which 
are  seen  in  water,  H20,  and  the  protoxyds,  M20,  and  in  the 
hydrogen,  H2,  or  the  metals  M2,  the  first  including  all  the 
oxygenized  acids,  and  the  second  the  hydr acids.  3.  On 
the  Chemical  Constitution  of  Gelatine  and  Its  Transforma- 
tions. 

4.  Remarks  on  the   Constitution  of  Leucine  and   the 
Ureas. 

5.  On  the  Compound  Ammonias  and  the  Bodies  of  the 
Cacodyle  Series. 

6.  On  the  Action  of  Sulphuretted  Hydrogen  Upon  Ni- 
tric Acetene. 

7.  On  the  Decomposition  of  Aniline  by  Nitrous  Acid. 

8.  On  the  Theoretical  Relations  of  Water  and  Hydro- 
gen.   In  this  paper,  published  in  March,  1854,  he  reviews 
the  opinions  of  the  European  chemists  on  the  water-type, 
and  reclaims  for  himself  the  priority  of  authorship  in  this 
important  conception  which  the  English  edition  of  Gmelin  's 
Handbook  ascribes  to  Williamson. 

9.  On  the  Theory  of  Types  in  Chemistry,  is  the  title 
of  a  memoir,  dated  January  5,  1861,  in  which  there  is  ably 
reviewed  the  history  of  the  subject,  and  shown  that,  in 
the  series  of  papers  whose  titles  are  above  quoted,  1  to  9, 
were  first  developed  the  views  of  the  water-type  and  of 
multiple    or    condensed    types    which    were    subsequently 
adopted  by  Williamson,  Gerhardt,  and  Ad.  Wurtz.    Wol- 
cott  Gibbs,  in  an  essay  presented  by  him  at  the  Baltimore 
meeting  of  the  American  Association  for  the  Advancement 

248 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

of  Science,  May,  1858,  remarks  that  in  a  previous  paper  of 
his  (his  " Report  of  the  Progress  of  Organic  Chemistry") 
he  had  attributed  the  theory  of  water-types  to  Williamson 
and  Gerhardt,  and  adds,  "in  this  I  find  I  have  not  done 
justice  to  T.  Sterry  Hunt,  to  whom  is  exclusively  due  the 
credit  of  having  first  applied  the  theory  to  the  so-called 
oxygen-acids  and  to  the  anhydrids,  and  in  whose  earlier 
papers  may  be  found  the  germs  of  most  of  the  ideas  on 
classification  usually  attributed  to  Gerhardt  and  his 
school. ' ' 

10.  Theory  of  Nitrification  and  Nature  of  Gaseous  Ni- 
trogen further  developed  with  experiments  on  the  oxida- 
tion of  nitrogen  by  permanganic  acid,  and  the  origin  of 
nitrous  acid,  forming  a  key  to  the  true  origin  of  nitrites 
and  nitrates  in  nature.  This  view  was  adopted  without 
change  or  addition  by  Schonbein  in  1862,  and  without  ac- 
knowledgment. 

Some  of  Hunt 's  more  important  contributions  to  Chemi- 
cal Philosophy  are  * '  Consideration  of  the  Theory  of  Chemi- 
cal Changes,"  and  on  "Equivalent  Volumes,"  "Thought 
on  Solution  and  the  Chemical  Process. ' '  In  this  paper  the 
ground  is  taken  that  all  solution  is  chemical  union.  "On 
the  Objects  and  Methods  of  Mineralogy."  "On  the  Con- 
stitution and  Equivalent  Volume  of  Some  Mineral  Spe- 
cies," "Illustration  of  Chemical  Homology." 

His  researches  on  the  equivalent  volumes  of  liquids  and 
solids  were  a  remarkable  anticipation  of  those  of  the  great 
French  chemist,  Dumas,  while,  in  his  "Introduction  to 
Organic  Chemistry,"  published  in  1852  with  Silliman's 
' '  First  Principles  of  Chemistry, ' '  he  was  the  first  to  define 
that  branch  as  "the  chemistry  of  carbon  and  its  com- 
pounds." His  studies  of  the  polymerism  of  mineral  spe- 
cies, as  set  forth  in  his  paper  on  "Objects  and  Methods  of 
Mineralogy,"  opened  a  new  field  for  mineralogy,  but 
these  philosophical  studies  were  only  incidental  to  his  la- 
bors in  chemical  mineralogy  and  chemical  geology. 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

His  researches  into  the  chemical  and  mineral  composition 
of  rocks  were  probably  more  extended  than  those  of  any 
contemporary  scientist.  From  his  long  series  of  investiga- 
tions of  the  lime  and  magnesia  salts  he  was  enabled  to 
explain  for  the  first  time  the  relations  of  gypsums  and  dolo- 
mites, and  to  explain  the  origin  of  the  latter  by  direct  de- 
position. The  first  systematic  attempt  to  subdivide  and 
classify  geologically  the  stratiform  crystalline  rocks  was 
made  by  him.  The  names  Laurentian  and  Huronian,  ap- 
plied to  the  earliest  known  rocks  on  this  continent,  were 
given  by  him  to  two  subdivisions  of  the  Azoic  period.  Like- 
wise the  distinction  and  designations  of  Norian,  Montalban, 
Taconian  and  Kekeenian  were  originated  by  him  and  have 
gained  an  acceptance  in  the  literature  of  geology.  In  con- 
nection with  these  studies  he  attempted  the  discussion  of 
the  great  questions  of  the  origin  and  the  succession  of  these 
rocks. 

He  sought  to  harmonize  the  facts  of  dynamical  geology 
with  the  theory  of  a  solid  globe,  and,  after  reviewing  and 
controverting  various  hypotheses,  including  the  igneous  or 
plutonic,  the  metamorphic,  and  the  metasomatic,  all  of 
which  he  rejected  as  irreconcilable  with  observed  facts  and 
as  isolating  chemical  theory,  thus  showing  the  essential 
correctness  of  the  still  imperfect  Wernerian  aqueous  view, 
he  advanced  the  so-called  crenitic  hypothesis,  in  which  he 
argued  that  the  source  of  the  various  groups  of  crystalline 
rocks  was  the  original  superficial  portion  of  the  globe,  once 
in  a  state  of  igneous  fusion,  but  previously  solidified  from 
the  center.  This  portion,  rendered  porous  by  cooling,  was 
permeated  by  circulating  water,  which  dissolved  and 
brought  to  the  surface  during  successive  ages,  after  the 
manner  of  modern  mineral  springs,  the  elements  of  the 
various  systems  of  crystalline  rocks.  These  views  were 
originally  advanced  in  his  essay  on  the  l '  Chemistry  of  the 
Earth/'  which  was  published  in  the  "Report  of  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution"  for  1869. 

250 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

His  conclusions  on  many  points  of  geology  are  embodied 
in  his  retiring  address  as  president  of  the  American  Asso- 
ciation for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  at  Indianapolis, 
in  1871,  and  in  a  matured  form  in  his  "Mineral  Physiology 
and  Physiography, ' '  originally  published  in  Boston  in  1886, 
in  which  may  be  found  his  theories  of  the  origin,  develop- 
ment, and  decay  of  crystalline  rocks  set  forth  in  detail. 

Hunt  was  the  first  to  make  known  the  deposits  of  phos- 
phate of  lime  in  Canada,  and  to  call  attention  to  their  com- 
mercial value  for  fertilizing  purposes.  The  chemical  and 
geological  relations  of  petroleum  were  studied  by  him,  and 
the  salt  deposits  of  Ontario  were  investigated  by  him.  His 
researches  in  the  chemistry  of  mineral  waters  were  exhaus- 
tive, and  were  said  to  have  been  ' '  more  extended  than  those 
of  any  other  living  chemist. ' '  Reports  and  papers  on  these 
subjects  by  him  appeared  in  the  various  volumes  issued  by 
the  Geological  Survey  of  Canada. 

In  1859  he  invented  and  patented  the  permanent  green 
ink,  which  has  since  been  so  extensively  used,  and  gave 
the  name  of  ' '  greenback ' '  currency  to  the  bills  which  were 
printed  with  it.  Later  he  was  associated  with  James  Doug- 
lass, Jr.,  in  the  invention  of  a  wet  process  for  the  extrac- 
tion of  copper  from  low  grades  of  ores,  consisting  essen- 
tially of  roasting  the  ore,  bringing  it  into  solution,  and  then 
precipitating  the  copper  in  its  metallic  form  by  the  intro- 
duction of  iron. 

Besides  the  reports  of  the  Geological  Survey  of  Canada, 
he  published  in  book  form,  "Chemical  and  Geological  Es- 
says" (Boston,  1874,  4th  ed.  New  York,  1891);  "Azoic 
Rocks,"  being  "Report  E  of  the  Second  Geological  Sur- 
vey of  Pennsylvania"  (Philadelphia,  1878)  ;  "A  New  Basis 
for  Chemistry"  (Boston,  1887,  2d  ed.  New  York,  1890). 
This  also  appeared  as  "Nouveau  Systeme  Chimique" 
(Paris,  1889),  and  a  Russian  translation,  being  the  initial 
volume  of  a  series  of  foreign  scientific  classics.  His 
last  work,  entitled  ' '  Systematic  Mineralogy  According  to  a 

251 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

Natural  System,"  was  published  in  New  York  during 
1891. 

He  was  president  of  the  American  Association  for  the 
Advancement  of  Science  in  1870  and  of  the  American  Insti- 
tute of  Mining  Engineers  in  1877.  The  American  Chemical 
Society  called  him  to  its  presidency  in  1880,  and  again  in 
1888.  He  was  one  of  the  founders,  and  the  first  president 
by  election,  of  the  Eoyal  Society  of  Canada,  in  1884.  In 
1876  he  organized,  in  concert  with  American  and  European 
geologists,  the  International  Geological  Congress,  was  its 
first  secretary,  and  vice-president  at  its  meetings  held  in 
Paris,  in  1878 ;  in  Bologna,  Italy,  in  1881 ;  and  in  London, 
in  1888. 

In  1859  he  was  elected  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society 
of  London,  and  in  1873  he  was  chosen  to  the  National 
Academy  of  Sciences.  He  was  a  member  of  the  American 
Philosophical  Society,  the  American  Academy  of  Arts  and 
Sciences,  and  abroad  he  was  a  member  of  the  geological 
societies  of  France,  Belgium,  Austria,  Ireland,  and  of  a 
number  of  other  scientific  bodies. 

Shortly  after  he  had  retired  from  active  work  this  was 
written  of  him :  ' '  Although  an  indefatigable  experimenter 
and  an  extensive  observer,  Hunt  was  also  eminently  an 
original  and  philosophical  thinker,  and  took  an  influential 
part  in  the  establishment  of  the  most  matured  and  scien- 
tific theories.  He  was  early  in  the  field  of  chemical  specu- 
lation, and  aided  essentially  in  that  revolution  of  views 
which  has  ended  in  the  establishment  of  a  new  chemistry. ' ' 

Eminent  and  enthusiastic  as  a  worker  in  the  field  of 
chemistry  was  John  Lawrence  Smith  (1818-1883),  of 
Charleston,  S.  C.  His  taste  for  physical  phenomena  and 
for  scientific  pursuits  led  him  to  the  University  of  Virginia, 
where,  before  he  was  seventeen  years  of  age,  he  pursued 
chemistry,  natural  philosophy,  and  civil  engineering. 

252 


T.  STERRY  HUNT 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

The  account  of  his  life,  given  in  the  following  para- 
graphs, has  been  condensed  from  a  sketch  published  in  the 
Biographical  Memoirs  of  the  National  Academy  of  Sciences 
and  from  one  privately  printed  in  Louisville,  Ky.,  by  inti- 
mate friends: 

On  graduating  from  the  Medical  College  of  South  Caro- 
lina, in  1840,  he  submitted  a  thesis  on  the  "  Compound 
Nature  of  Nitrogen." 

Immediately  after  taking  his  medical  degree  Smith  went 
to  Paris.  With  Dumas  he  studied  pure  and  applied  chem- 
istry, and  with  Orfila  toxicology;  with  Poulliet,  Desprez, 
and  Ed.  Becquerel,  physics;  and  with  Dufrenoy  and  Elie 
de  Beaumont,  mineralogy  and  geology. 

During  one  of  his  summer  excursions  he  found  himself 
at  the  door  of  Liebig's  laboratory  in  Giessen.  This  acci- 
dental circumstance  turned  the  whole  course  of  his  life  into 
the  channel  from  which  it  was  never  afterward  diverted. 
He  became  a  zealous  and  enthusiastic  student  of  chemistry 
under  the  inspiration  of  Liebig.  He  appears  to  have  di- 
vided his  time  between  Giessen  in  the  summer  and  Paris 
in  the  winter. 

"While  yet  a  student  in  Charleston,  he  wrote  on  * '  Chrom- 
ate  of  Potassa — a  Reagent  for  Distinguishing  between  the 
Salts  of  Baryta  and  Strontia. "  In  this  paper  he  first  made 
known  to  chemists  this  very  delicate  and  now  very  familiar 
test  for  barium,  and  determined  its  quantitative  value.  In 
the  same  year  he  published  "A  New  Method  of  Making 
Permanent  Artificial  Magnets  by  Galvanism. " 

In  1842  he  transmitted  from  Paris  a  research  "On  the 
Composition  and  Products  of  Distillation  of  Spermaceti, 
Etc," 

253 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

At  the  time  when  this  research  was  made  probably  no 
American  chemist  had  done  any  work  in  organic  chemistry 
of  so  elaborate  a  character  as  is  shown  in  this  investiga- 
tion. 

In  a  subsequent  paper  on  the  action  of  potash  on  choles- 
terine  he  showed  that  this  body  was  nearly  related  to 
spermaceti. 

Shortly  after  Dr.  Smith  reached  Paris  he  found  the 
whole  of  France  agitated  by  one  of  the  most  interesting 
criminal  processes  upon  record — that  of  Madame  La  Farge. 
This  case  involved  the  question  of  the  normal  existence  of 
arsenic  in  the  human  body,  and  of  its  presence  in  hydrated 
peroxide  of  iron,  used  as  an  antidote.  Dr.  Smith  reviewed 
these  and  other  questions  in  a  paper  entitled  "On  the 
Means  of  Detecting  Arsenic  In  the  Animal  Body,  and  of 
Counteracting  Its  Effects/'  The  date  of  the  Paris  paper  is 
December  6,  1840.  He  was  then  a  student  of  Orfila,  but 
did  not  hesitate  to  expose  the  errors  of  his  distinguished 
professor  in  this  celebrated  case — errors  afterward  ac- 
knowledged by  Orfila  himself. 

He  followed  up  this  subject  by  a  second  paper  of  date 
June  28,  1841,  entitled  "Continuation  of  Remarks  Made 
Upon  Arsenic,  Considered  In  a  Medico-Legal  Point  of 
View,"  in  which  he  described  the  method  of  Danger  and 
Flandin  for  destroying  animal  matter  in  toxical  examina- 
tions, and  also  the  then  new  form  of  Marsh's  apparatus; 
and  he  still  further  reviewed  the  ground  for  rejecting  the 
opinion  that  arsenic  is  ever  a  normal  constituent  of  the  ani- 
mal body,  supporting  his  statements  by  evidence  from  his 
own  original  work. 

In  November,  1841,  Smith  sent  to  this  country  from 

254 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

Giessen  a  translation  of  Will  and  Warrentrapp  's  method  of 
determining  nitrogen  in  organic  compounds,  accompanying 
it  with  notes  of  his  own. 

Before  1846  he  had  done  some  important  work  in  chemi- 
cal analysis  and  in  the  improvement  of  analytical  methods ; 
thus  determining  the  action  of  alkaline  salts  on  sulphate  of 
lead ;  the  composition  of  fossil  bones  from  near  Charleston, 
and  origin  of  the  fluorine  found  in  them;  the  action  of 
solutions  of  the  neutral  phosphates  upon  carbonate  of  lime, 
and  the  composition  of  marl  from  Ashly  River,  S.  C. 

These  papers  undoubtedly  led  to  his  selection  by  Secre- 
tary (later  President)  Buchanan  as  a  suitable  person  to 
meet  the  call  from  the  Sultan  of  Turkey  for  scientific  aid 
in  introducing  into  that  kingdom  American  methods  in  the 
culture  of  cotton — a  subject  with  which  he  was  also  fa- 
miliar. 

Finding  on  his  arrival  in  Turkey  that  an  associate  pro- 
posed to  inaugurate  the  cultivation  of  cotton  on  a  plan 
doomed  to  failure,  he  was  about  returning  to  America 
when  he  received  from  the  Turkish  government  a  commis- 
sion to  explore  her  mineral  resources.  He  entered  at  once 
upon  this  work,  and,  in  the  four  years  of  his  residence  in 
the  Sultan's  dominions,  opened  up  natural  resources  which 
have  ever  since  added  an  important  item  to  the  revenues 
of  the  Porte. 

His  memoir  on  "emery"  was  equally  important.  From 
the  study  of  the  mineralogical  associations  in  which  he 
found  the  emery  of  Asia  Minor,  he  felt  convinced  that  the 
search  for  like  associations  elsewhere  would  be  rewarded 
by  the  discovery  of  emery  or  corundum. 

After  his  return  to  America  he  had  the  opportunity  of 

255 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

seeing  the  accuracy  of  his  views  demonstrated  at  the  mine 
at  Chester,  in  Hampden  County,  Mass. 

Smith's  memoir  on  the  Turkish  emery  was  presented 
to  the  French  Academy  in  1850,  and  published. 

Many  other  researches,  scientific  and  economic,  on  coal, 
chromite,  magnesite,  etc.,  were  prosecuted  by  Smith  while 
in  the  service  of  the  Ottoman  government. 

In  the  early  spring  of  1850  he  returned  to  Paris  and 
remained  there  until  the  following  October,  occupied  with 
scientific  work  relating  to  emery  and  its  associate  minerals, 
and  the  presentation  of  his  two  memoirs  on  this  subject  to 
the  Institute. 

He  also  found  time  to  project  his  inverted  microscope, 
which  he  matured  after  his  return  home. 

January,  1881,  he  wrote  from  Charleston,  "I  often  re- 
gret that  I  am  not  more  permanently  established,  for  my 
concentration  on  scientific  labor  can  never  be  made  ad- 
vantageous until  I  have  a  well  mounted  laboratory  of  my 
own — In  fact  I  have  been  literally  a  sort  of  peripatetic 
philosopher,  carrying  my  own  hammer  and  anvil  and  do- 
ing a  little  wherever  I  could  get  a  place  to  work  in.  It 
would  no  doubt  surprise  you  to  see  in  my  baggage  a  box 
of  platinum,  from  a  pint  capacity  down ;  bottles  of  pure 
carbonate  soda,  bisulphate  of  soda,  fluorspar,  potash,  car- 
bonate of  lime,  etc. ;  in  fact,  my  essentials  that  I  am  only 
satisfied  of  as  to  purity  when  they  come  from  my  own 
stock. " 

In  a  letter,  of  date  January  7, 1853,  he  said, ' '  My  method 
of  analyzing  the  alkaline  silicates  is  now  complete,  and 
will  appear  in  the  next  number  of  the  American  Journal  of 
Science.  This  method  of  decomposing  silicates  for  the  al- 

256 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

kalies  is  quite  as  easy  as  a  carbonate  of  soda  fusion,  which 
latter,  however,  is  an  insignificant  decomposing  agent  along 
side  of  it.  Zircon  and  kyanite  yield  to  it  at  a  light  red  heat 
in  an  open  furnace.  Carbonate  of  lime  is  the  agent.  You 
will  learn  how  to  use  it  for  this  purpose  by  referring  to 
the  forthcoming  paper. ' ' 

This  paper  appeared  in  March,  1853,*  and  it  was  a  very 
valuable  contribution  to  analytical  methods;  Smith's  proc- 
ess for  decomposing  the  alkaline  silicates,  by  the  use  of 
calcium  carbonate  and  chloride,  is  now  the  generally  ac- 
cepted method. 

The  researches  on  American  minerals,  carried  on  jointly 
by  Smith  and  Brush,  were  made  in  1853,  and  have  long 
since  passed  into  the  records  of  science.  They  settled 
many  doubtful  points,  and  relegated  into  obscurity  many 
worthless  species,  while  clearly  establishing  others. 

In  1854  Smith  accepted  the  chair  of  medical  chemistry 
and  toxicology  in  the  University  of  Louisville.  This  chair 
he  retained  until  the  spring  of  1886.  Possessed  of  an 
ample  fortune,  and  frequently  called,  in  the  way  of  his 
profession,  to  visit  Europe,  he  found  the  restraints  of  a 
professorship,  in  an  institution  no  longer  prosperous,  dis- 
tasteful, and  naturally  preferred  to  devote  himself  to  the 
more  congenial  researches  which  he  had  commenced  in  the 
department  of  aerolites,  to  the  collection  and  study  of 
which  he  gave  great  attention  during  the  remainder  of  his 
life.  His  first  memoir  on  this  subject  was  his  description 
of  five  new  meteoric  irons  in  1854,  forming  part  of  his 
memoir  on  meteorites,  read  before  the  American  Associa- 

*  Am.  Jour.  Sci.  (2)  XV,  234-243.  Completed  in  Part  II,  July  1, 
1853.  (2)  XVI,  53-61. 

257 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

tiori  for  the  Advancement  of  Science  in  April,  1854,  but 
not  published  until  the  following  year.* 

In  this  paper  Smith  appears  for  the  first  time  as  the 
author  of  a  general  theoretical  discussion  of  cosmical  or 
astronomical  considerations  as  to  the  origin  of  meteorites. 
His  views  are  expressed  with  force  and  clearness.  He  an- 
tagonizes the  notion  that  meteorites,  as  we  know  them  from 
the  fragments  which  reach  the  earth,  are  large,  solid  cos- 
mical bodies,  passing  through  the  earth's  atmosphere  with 
planetary  velocity,  and  dropping  small  portions  of  their 
mass  in  their  flight.  He  advocates  strongly  the  lunar  origin 
of  meteorites  as  the  most  probable  theory  yet  advanced. 
This  view  he  sustains  with  the  courage  of  his  convictions, 
and  illustrates  by  citing  many  interesting  facts,  which,  in 
his  view,  go  far  to  establish  the  lunar  theory. 

If  we  turn  to  the  list  of  his  papers  in  the  Royal  Society 
catalogue,  we  find,  out  of  seventy-eight  titles,  down  to  1872, 
there  are  twenty-two  upon  meteoric  subjects,  all  subsequent 
to  1854,  and  of  these  seventeen  papers  were  printed  be- 
tween 1864  and  1873,  the  date  of  the  publication  of  his 
volume  of  papers  already  cited;  in  this  volume  of  four 
hundred  pages  one  hundred  are  devoted  to  meteorites. 
Succeeding  these  are  seventeen  additional  meteoric  papers 
and  many  on  other  subjects,  chiefly  mineralogical. 

The  last  paper  printed  by  Smith,  1882,  was  "On  the 
Peculiar  Concretions  in  Meteoric  Iron."  At  the  close  of 
this  paper  he  says  he  will  continue  the  research,  "if,"  he 
adds,  "my  health  permits."  It  was  his  last  work. 

Smith's  collection  of  meteorites  was  commenced  by  his 
purchase  of  the  valuable  collection  of  G.  Troost,  of  Nash- 

*  Am.  Jour.  Sci.  (2)  XIX,  153-332. 

258 


J.  LAWRENCE  SMITH 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

ville  University,  who  was  fortunate  in  securing  a  number  of 
large  iron  meteorites  from  Tennessee,  but  Smitb  added  con- 
stantly to  this  collection  from  all  parts  of  the  world,  and 
especially  of  irons  from  Mexico,  as  well  as  from  the  United 
States,  and  of  stones  from  such  falls  as  those  of  New  Con- 
cord, Ohio,  in  May,  1860,  and  from  the  great  fall  of  Iowa 
in  February,  1875;  Nash  County,  North  Carolina,  1872; 
Warren  County,  Missouri,  January  7,  1877;  and  others. 
He  sold  a  number  of  his  larger  iron  masses  in  1862  to  Prof. 
C.  U.  Shepard  in  London,  and  of  the  Mexican  irons  to  the 
museum  of  the  Garden  of  Plants  in  Paris  (1879). 

Fortunately  for  science  this  fine  meteoric  collection  has 
passed,  entire,  by  purchase,  into  the  possession  of  Harvard 
College. 

Smith's  collection  is,  in  a  sense,  a  monumental  one,  me- 
morial of  the  life  work  of  a  devoted  student  in  this  very 
interesting  department  of  cosmical  chemistry  and  mineral- 
ogy. 

Among  others,  Smith  was  a  member  of  the  National 
Academy  of  Sciences  and,  in  1879,  corresponding  member 
of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  of  the  Institute  of  France. 

The  list  of  his  published  contributions  to  chemical  science 
numbers  145.  The  last  refers  to  "  Methods  of  Analyzing 
samarskite  and  the  other  columbates  containing  earthy  ox- 
ides by  the  agency  of  fluorhydic  acid;  and  of  dissolving 
columbite  and  tantalite  by  the  same  acid.  On  the  separa- 
tion of  thoria  from  the  other  oxides.  Quantitative  estima- 
tion of  didymium  oxide  in  its  mixtures  with  other  earthy 
oxides"  (1881). 

The  writer  met  J.  Lawrence  Smith  in  the  laboratory  of 
Genth  (1879).  It  was  his  privilege  to  observe  these  two 

259 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

eminent  and  brilliant  chemists  at  work.  They  had  differed 
on  a  point  in  the  analysis  of  a  complex  silicate  and,  rather 
than  cover  valuable  pages  of  some  journal  with  their  dif- 
ferences, occupying  space  that  could  be  better  used,  they 
determined  to  settle  the  point  at  issue  by  experimental 
demonstrations  made  in  each  other's  company.  In  this 
particular  case  Genth  was  in  the  right. 

It  was  a  further  privilege  of  the  writer  to  see  Gibbs, 
Genth  and  Smith  working  amicably  and  cheerfully  in  the 
same  room  over  problems  which  greatly  interested  them. 
Some  of  the  difficult  points  in  the  analytical  study  of  the 
cobaltamines  were  settled  by  Gibbs  and  Genth  with  the 
writer  a  very  silent  but  much  interested  observer  and 
auditor  of  the  work  and  remarks  of  these  pioneers. 

Smith  appeared  in  the  laboratory  of  the  University  where 
the  writer  was  an  assistant.  He  was  then  short  and  stout 
of  figure.  His  hair  was  heavy,  thick,  quite  gray,  parted 
on  one  side,  rather  long  and  brushed  back.  He  wore  spec- 
tacles which  rested  on  the  end  of  his  nose.  On  learning 
that  the  writer  was  endeavoring  to  procure  a  compound 
ether  by  heating  the  silver  salt  of  an  organic  acid  with 
ethyl  iodide,  Smith,  having  seated  himself  on  a  high  stool, 
remarked  "that  is  a  new  method  to  me."  On  several  oc- 
casions the  writer  enjoyed  hearing  from  Smith  the  story  of 
his  study  of  the  rare  earths  and,  in  particular,  his  experi- 
ences in  unravelling  the  composition  of  samarskite,  in 
which  he  was  especially  interested. 

The  reader  will  pardon  this  personal  digression  on  the 
part  of  the  writer,  but  to  him  it  has  always  seemed  as  if 
there  could  not  be  too  much  credit  given  Genth,  Gibbs  and 
J.  Lawrence  Smith  for  the  admirable  contributions  they 

260 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

made  to  the  development  of  chemical  science  in  the  United 
States. 

And,  now,  to  the  life  history  of  Frederick  A.  Genth 
(1820-1893),  born  in  Hesse  in  1820. 

His  university  career  began  in  Heidelberg,  where  he 
heard  Gmelin  in  chemistry.  He  studied  for  a  year  and  a 
half  at  Giessen  under  Fresenius,  Kopp  and  Liebig.  In  1844 
he  continued  his  chemical  studies  under  Bunsen  at  the 
University  of  Marburg.  It  was  from  this  University  that 
he  received  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Philosophy. 

It  was  about  1848  that  he  came  to  America,  and,  after 
occupying  several  positions  and  conducting  a  laboratory 
for  commercial  analysis  and  the  instruction  of  special  stu- 
dents in  chemistry,  he  became  Professor  of  Chemistry  in 
the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  in  1872. 

His  earliest  contributions  were  upon  geological  subjects. 
Later  he  devoted  much  time  to  mineralogical  problems. 
The  chemical  research  by  which  he  is  best  known  relates 
to  the  ammonia  cobalt  bases  (the  cobaltamines)  developed 
jointly  with  Wolcott  Gibbs.  His  original  memoir  was  pub- 
lished in  Philadelphia  in  1851  and  contained  the  first  dis- 
tinct recognition  of  the  existence  of  perfectly  well  defined 
and  crystallized  salts  of  the  ammonia  cobalt  bases.  The 
joint  monograph  of  Genth  and  Gibbs  appeared  in  1856. 
This  elaborate  and  extended  research  has  always  stood 
among  the  finest  chemical  investigations  ever  made  in  this 
country.  Several  years  were  required  to  complete  it,  the 
analytical  portion  of  the  work  being  as  difficult  as  it  was 
protracted. 

In  1858,  Genth  and  Gibbs  published  a  notice  of  a  new 
base  containing  osmium  and  ammonium.  The  cobaltamines 

261 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

of  Genth  and  Gibbs  were  never  fully  understood  as  to  their 
constitution  until  in  recent  years,  when  they  have  been 
interpreted  so  admirably  by  the  painstaking  efforts  of 
Werner. 

The  chief  chemical  investigations  of  Genth,  which  are 
most  highly  valued,  are  those  in  connection  with  mineral- 
ogy. His  contributions  to  this  subject  are  fifty-four  in 
number.  The  contents  describe  215  mineral  species.  Genth 
was  the  discoverer  of  twenty-four  new  mineral  species, 
all  of  which  were  so  thoroughly  investigated,  both  by  chemi- 
cal and  physical  methods,  that  they  found  at  once  a  posi- 
tion in  the  science  which  they  have  ever  since  maintained. 

1  'Corundum,  Its  Alterations  and  Associated  Minerals" 
is  the  title  of  one  of  his  important  and  extended  studies. 
It  appeared  in  1873,  in  the  "Proceedings  of  the  American 
Philosophical  Society."  It  occupied  fifty-six  pages. 

Genth  was  chemist  for  the  second  Geological  Survey  of 
Pennsylvania  and  chemist  to  the  Board  of  Agriculture  of 
Pennsylvania,  and  did  much  by  his  investigations,  espe- 
cially by  his  analysis  of  fertilizers,  to  develop  the  agricul- 
tural industry  of  the  State  of  Pennsylvania  and  to  main- 
tain a  high  standard  of  excellence  in  all  farm  products. 

As  a  chemist,  he  was  almost  without  a  peer,  especially  in 
the  field  of  analysis,  being  familiar  not  only  with  the 
reactions  and  methods  of  determination  and  separation  of 
the  ordinary  elemental  and  compound  ions,  but,  what  is 
more  remarkable,  with  those  of  the  rarer  and  less  fre- 
quently occurring  ones  as  well;  but,  more  than  this,  his 
scientific  work  was  characterized  by  a  conscientiousness  and 
fidelity  to  fact  which  was  exceptional.  His  knowledge  of 
minerals  was  complete. 

262 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

He  was  a  member  of  the  American  Philosophical  Society, 
President  of  the  American  Chemical  Society,  a  member 
of  the  National  Academy  of  Sciences,  a  Fellow  of  the 
American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Science,  and  an  Honorary 
Fellow  of  the  American  Association  for  the  Advancement 
of  Science. 

He  died  in  1893.  His  contributions  to  chemical  and 
mineralogical  subjects  number  102. 


CHAPTER   XII 

OF  the  eminent  chemists  who,  from  time  to  time,  con- 
gregated in  the  laboratory  of  Genth,  none  attracted 
and  absorbed  the  youthful  attention  of  the  writer  to  so 
great  an  extent  as  Wolcott  Gibbs  (1822-1908). 

He  was,  indeed,  a  master  in  the  science  and  an  inspira- 
tion to  all  who  were  fortunate  enough  to  meet  him.  Frank 
Wigglesworth  Clarke  has  written  so  beautifully  of  this 
exceptional  investigator  that  it  seems  most  appropriate 
that  his  sketch  should  be  given  as  much  publicity  as  pos- 
sible, and  it  is  accordingly  appended  in  almost  its  exact 
language : 

Wolcott  Gibbs  for  years  held  the  most  commanding  posi- 
tion among  the  chemists  of  the  United  States. 

He  was  born  in  New  York  City  (1822).  He  received  his 
Bachelor's  degree  from  Columbia  University  in  1851,  after 
which  he  served  as  assistant  to  Robert  Hare  in  Philadel- 
phia. In  1845  he  received  his  Doctorate  in  Medicine.  He, 
however,  never  practiced  medicine.  Subsequently,  he 
studied  chemistry  with  Rammelsberg  in  Berlin  and  spent 
one  year  with  Heinrich  Rose,  which  was  followed  by  a 
semester  with  Liebig  at  Giessen.  In  Paris,  he  attended  the 
lectures  of  Laurent,  Dumas,  and  Regnault.  He  returned 
home  in  1848. 

In  1849  he  became  Professor  of  Chemistry  in  the  College 
of  the  City  of  New  York,  which  chair  he  held  for  fourteen 
years. 

264 


WOLCOTT  GIBBS 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

In  1857  his  first  notable  research  appeared,  namely,  the 
joint  "Memoir  of  Genth  and  Gibbs  on  the  Ammonia  Co- 
balt Bases."  In  1861  the  first  of  his  papers  on  the  "Plati- 
num Metals"  appeared. 

In  1863  he  became  Rumford  Professor  in  Harvard  Uni- 
versity. He  was  in  charge  of  the  laboratory  of  the  Law- 
rence Scientific  School  for  eight  years. 

It  was  Gibbs'  peculiar  merit,  that  he,  more  than  any 
other  man,  introduced  into  the  United  States  the  German 
conception  of  research  as  a  means  of  chemical  instruction. 

His  first  paper  was  a  "Description  of  a  New  Form  of 
Magneto-Electric  Machine,  and  an  Account  of  a  Carbon 
Battery  of  Considerable  Energy. ' '  This  he  published  while 
yet  a  junior  in  college.  In  1844  he  attempted  to  discuss  the 
theory  of  compound  salt  radicles.  In  1850  he  pointed  out 
the  interesting  fact  that  compounds  which  change  color 
when  heated  do  so  in  the  direction  of  the  red  end  of  the 
spectrum.  In  1852  he  published  his  first  memoir  on  analyt- 
ical methods;  in  1853  he  prepared  an  arsenical  derivative 
of  valeric  acid.  Mineral  chemistry,  organic  chemistry, 
analytical  chemistry,  chemical  theory  and  physics  in  turn 
attracted  his  attention  during  this  formative  period  of  his 
career.  It  was  in  the  great  research  upon  the  ammonia 
cobalt  bases,  to  which  reference  has  already  been  made, 
that  Gibbs  finally  found  himself  and  forced  the  world  to 
recognize  his  ability.  In  the  celebrated  memoir  of  Genth 
and  Gibbs  thirty-five  salts  were  described  of  the  four  bases 
roseocobalt,  purpureocobalt,  luteocobalt,  and  xanthocobalt. 
The  roseocobalt  and  purpureocobalt  compounds  were  for 
the  first  time  clearly  discriminated.  There  was  also  an 
elaborate  theoretical  discussion  upon  the  constitution  of 

265 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

the  bases,  but  that  was  premature.  Genth  and  Gibbs  laid 
the  foundations  on  which  later  investigators  have  built  an 
imposing  structure. 

In  1867  Gibbs  published  a  paper  upon  atomicities  or 
valences  in  which  he  developed  the  idea  then  vaguely  held 
by  others  of  residual  affinities.  He  argued  in  favor  of 
the  quadrivalency  of  oxygen,  and  showed  that  on  that  sup- 
position a  molecule  of  water  must  be  bivalent,  and  any 
chain  of  water  molecules  would  be  bivalent  also.  He  then 
considered  ammonia  in  the  same  way,  with  the  two  bonds  of 
quinquivalent  nitrogen  unsatisfied.  Ammonia,  therefore, 
was  weakly  bivalent,  and  so,  too,  would  be  a  chain  of  am- 
monia molecules.  This  conception  he  applied  to  the  in- 
terpretation of  the  ammonia  cobalt  bases,  and  so,  too,  did 
Blomstrand  two  years  later.  If  we  consider  theories  of 
this  kind  not  as  finalities,  but  as  attempts  to  express  known 
relations  in  symbolic  forms,  we  must  admit  that  Gibbs'  con- 
ception was  useful,  and  served  well  for  the  time  being.  In 
the  later  papers  by  Gibbs,  published  in  1875,  he  made  good 
use  of  his  hypotheses,  and  described  many  more  ammonia- 
cobalt  compounds.  Among  them  were  the  salts  of  an  en- 
tirely new  base,  croceocobalt,  in  which  two  nitro-groups 
were  present.  In  all,  five  distinct  series  were  studied,  their 
chlorides  being  represented,  in  modern  notation,  by  the 
subjoined  formulas: 

Luteocobalt  chloride   . .  ,Co(NH3)cCl8 

Roseocobalt  chloride   Co(NH3)5H2O.Cl3 

Purpureocobalt Co(NH3)5Cl.Cl2 

Xanthocobalt  chloride Co(NH3)5N02.Cl2 

Croceocobalt  chloride Co(NH3)4(N02)2Cl. 

266 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

Gibbs'  formulas  were  somewhat  different  from  these,  be- 
ing doubled,  and  with  the  water  of  roseocobalt  regarded 
not  as  constitutional,  but  as  crystalline.  The  simpler, 
halved  expressions  were  established  by  cryoscopic  methods 
which  did  not  exist  when  Gibbs  conducted  his  investiga- 
tions. 

The  researches  upon  the  platinum  metals,  published  by 
Gibbs  in  the  years  1861  to  1864,  relate  mainly  to  analytical 
methods.  Processes  for  the  solution  of  iridosmine  were 
carefully  studied,  and  various  new  separations  of  the  sev- 
eral metals  from  one  another  were  devised.  Incidentally, 
a  number  of  new  compounds  were  prepared,  which,  with  a 
few  exceptions,  Gibbs  never  fully  described.  In  1871,  how- 
ever, he  published  a  brief  note  on  the  remarkable  complex 
nitrites  formed  by  iridium,*  and  in  1881  he  described  a 
new  base,  osmyl-ditetramin,  Os02.4NH3,  together  with  sev- 
eral of  its  salts.  These  researches  were  never  pushed  very 
far,  and  were  discontinued  for  lack  of  proper  facilities. 
They  were,  nevertheless,  distinct  additions  to  our  knowl- 
edge of  the  platinum  group. 

With  his  students  he  covered  a  wide  range,  partly  in  de- 
veloping and  perfecting  old  analytical  methods,  partly  in 
devising  new  ones.  There  were  improvements  in  gas  anal- 
ysis, especially  in  the  determination  of  nitrogen,  and  a 
great  variety  of  analytical  separations.  A  new  volumetric 
method  for  analyzing  the  salts  of  heavy  metals  was  worked 
out,  in  which  a  metal  such  as  copper  or  lead  was  precipi- 
tated as  sulphide,  the  acid  being  afterwards  deter- 
mined by  titration.  The  estimation  of  manganese  as  pyro- 

*  Ber.  Deutsch.  chem.  Ges.,  4,280.  Not  a  separate  paper,  but  part 
of  his  correspondence. 

267 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

phosphate  was  another  of  these  contributions  to  analysis. 
But  the  most  important  of  all  was  the  electrolytic  deter- 
mination of  copper,  now  universally  used,  which  was  first 
published  from  Gibbs'  laboratory.  It  is  true  that  Luck- 
ow  claimed  to  have  used  the  method  much  earlier,  but,  so 
far  as  can  be  discovered,  he  failed  to  publish  it.  Gibbs, 
therefore,  is  entitled  to  full  credit  for  a  process  which  was 
the  progenitor  of  many  others.  The  entire  field  of  electro- 
analysis  was  thrown  open  by  him,  and  it  has  been  most 
profitably  cultivated.  Gibbs  also  invented  several  instru- 
mental devices  of  great  convenience.  The  ring  burner,  and 
the  use  of  porous  septa  when  precipitates  are  to  be  heated 
in  gases,  are  due  to  him.  Furthermore,  in  cooperation  with 
E.  R.  Taylor,  he  devised  a  glass  and  sand  filter  which  was 
the  forerunner  of  the  porous  cones  invented  by  Munroe 
when  the  latter  was  a  student  in  Gibbs'  laboratory.  That, 
in  turn,  preceded  the  well-known  perforated  crucibles  of 
Gooch,  who  was  one  of  Gibbs'  assistants.  The  genealogy 
of  these  inventions  is  perfectly  clear. 

We  now  come  to  the  remarkable  series  of  researches 
upon  the  complex  inorganic  acids,  which  Gibbs  began  to 
publish  in  1877,  and  continued  well  into  the  nineties.  The 
ground  had  already  been  broken  by  others;  silicotungs- 
tates,  phosphotungstates,  phosphomolybdates,  etc.,  were 
fairly  well  known,  but  they  were  commonly  regarded  as 
exceptional  compounds  rather  than  as  representatives  of  a 
very  general  class.  In  his  first  preliminary  communicatior 
upon  the  subject  Gibbs  indicated  the  vastness  of  the  field 
to  be  explored,  and  showed  that  the  formation  of  complex 
acids  was  characteristic  of  tungsten  and  molybdenum  to 
an  extraordinary  degree.  The  phenomena  were  general, 

268 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

not  special ;  and  no  limit  could  be  assigned  to  the  possible 
number  of  acids  which  these  elements  might  form. 

In  his  systematic  work,  following  his  preliminary  an- 
nouncement, Gibbs  first  revised  the  sodium  tungstates  in 
order  to  determine  their  true  composition.  Then,  after  pre- 
paring a  number  of  phosphotungstates  and  phosphomolyb- 
dates,  he  studied  the  corresponding  compounds  containing 
arsenic  in  place  of  phosphorus.  He  next  obtained  similar 
vanadium  compounds,  and  also  showed  that  the  phosphoric 
oxide  of  the  first  known  acids  was  replaceable  by  phosphor- 
ous and  hypo-phosphorous  groups.  Later  still,  he  replaced 
the  normal  phosphates  by  pyro-  and  meta-phosphates,  and 
also  prepared  complex  salts  containing  arsenious,  antimo- 
nious,  and  antimonic  radicles.  Stannophosphotungstates 
and  molybdates,  platinotungstates,  and  complex  acids  con- 
taining mixed  groups  were  discovered,  together  with  anal- 
ogous compounds  of  selenium,  tellurium,  cerium,  and  uran- 
ium. One  salt  described,  a  phospho-vanadio-vanadico- 
tungstate  of  barium,  had  the  formula 

60  W03.3P205.  V205.V02.18Ba0.150H20, 

with  a  molecular  weight  of  20066.  Compared  with  this  sub- 
stance the  supposed  complexity  of  most  organic  compounds 
is  simplicity  itself,  and  their  interpretation  seems  relatively 
like  child's  play.  In  all,  Gibbs  described  complex  salts 
belonging  to  more  than  fifty  distinct  series. 

In  1898,  in  his  address  as  retiring  President  of  the 
American  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science, 
Gibbs  summed  up  his  views  as  to  the  constitution  of  the 
complex  acids.  His  presentation  of  the  subject,  however, 
can  hardly  be  regarded  as  final.  The  problems  involved 

269 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

are  to.o  complicated  to  be  easily  solved,  and  much  future 
investigation  is  needed  in  order  to  determine  the  true  char- 
acter of  these  extraordinary  substances.  Gibbs  was  a  pio- 
neer, breaking  pathways  into  a  tangled  wilderness;  but 
the  ways  are  now  open,  and  he  who  wills  may  follow.  Pos- 
sibly some  of  the  compounds  so  far  obtained  were  double 
salts ;  others  may  have  been  isomorphous  mixtures ;  and  in 
some  instances  phenomena  of  solid  solution  perhaps  ob- 
scured the  truth.  By  physical  methods,  cryoscopic  or 
ebullioscopic,  the  molecular  weights  of  the  salts  must  be 
determined;  their  ionization  needs  to  be  studied,  and  in 
such  ways  their  true  nature  can  be  ascertained.  These 
methods  of  research  have  been  mainly  developed  since  the 
work  of  Gibbs  was  done ;  he,  therefore,  cannot  be  criticised 
for  not  employing  them.  Since  his  time  chemists  have 
come  to  recognize  many  compounds  as  salts  containing 
complex  ions,  such  as,  for  example,  the  oxalates,  tartrates, 
etc.,  of  'iron,  aluminium,  chromium,  and  antimony,  with 
other  bases  of  lower  valency.  Even  many  of  the  silicates 
are  easiest  to  interpret  as  salts  of  alumino-silicic  acids,  al- 
though the  physical  proof  of  their  nature  is  difficult  to 
obtain.  The  constitution  of  the  complex  acids  is  one  of  the 
great  outstanding  problems  of  inorganic  chemistry. 

Although  he  was  distinctively  an  inorganic  chemist, 
Gibbs  did  not  entirely  neglect  organic  chemistry.  In  1868 
he  discussed  the  constitution  of  uric  acid  and  its  derivatives, 
and  in  1869  he  described  some  products  formed  by  the  ac- 
tion of  alkaline  nitrites  upon  them.  He  also  produced  sev- 
eral memoirs  upon  optical  subjects,  such  as  one  upon  a 
normal  map  of  the  solar  spectrum,  and  another  upon  the 
wave  lengths  of  the  elementary  spectral  lines.  Again,  he 

270 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

devoted  some  time  to  the  study  of  interference  phenomena, 
and  discovered  a  constant,  which  he  called  the  interferen- 
tial  constant,  that  was  independent  of  temperature.  One 
of  Gibbs'  latest  papers,  published  when  he  was  seventy-one 
years  old,  related  to  that  extremely  difficult  subject,  the 
separation  of  the  rare  earths — a  subject  in  which  he  had 
always  taken  a  deep  interest.  In  this  paper  he  developed 
a  new  method  for  determining  the  atomic  weights  of  the 
rare-earth  metals,  which  was  based  upon  analyses  of  their 
oxalates.  The  oxalic  acid  was  determined  by  titration  with 
permanganate  solutions,  and  the  oxides  by  ignition  of  the 
salts.  From  the  ratios  between  the  oxalic  acid  and  the 
oxides  the  molecular  weights  of  the  latter  could  be  com- 
puted without  reference  to  the  amount  of  moisture  in  the 
initial  substances.  This  method  has  since  been  employed 
by  others,  and  especially  by  Brauner,  in  his  work  on  the 
atomic  weights  of  cerium  and  lanthanum.  It  is  worth  not- 
ing here  that  Gibbs  had  previously  taken  some  part  in 
atomic  weight  determinations.  Those  of  Wing  on  cerium, 
and  of  Lee  on  cobalt  and  nickel,  were  made  in  Gibbs'  lab- 
oratory and  under  his  guidance.  Furthermore,  Gibbs  was 
one  of  the  earliest  American  chemists,  if  not  the  first,  to 
accept  the  modern  or  Cannizzaro  system  of  atomic  weights, 
and  to  use  it  in  his  teaching. 

Gibbs  wrote  no  books  and  delivered  no  popular  lectures. 
He  was  president  of  the  National  Academy  of  Sciences 
from  1895  to  1900,  and  he  also  presided  over  the  American 
Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science  in  1897.  Hon- 
orary membership  in  the  German,  English,  and  American 
chemical  societies,  and  in  the  Prussian  Academy  was  con- 
ferred upon  him. 

271 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

His  important  contributions  number  76. 

In  the  universities  of  the  Western  States  there  have  been 
many  persons  who  have  materially  advanced  the  interests 
of  chemistry.  In  this  group,  and  really  a  pioneer  in  it, 
was  Albert  Benjamin  Prescott,  born  in  Hastings,  N.  Y. 
(1832).  His  early  education  was  obtained  from  private 
tutors,  from  whose  care  he  passed  to  the  University  of 
Michigan  and  there  graduated  from  its  medical  department 
in  1864. 

At  the  close  of  the  war  he  returned  to  Ann  Arbor  to 
accept  the  place  of  assistant  professor  of  chemistry  and 
lecturer  on  organic  chemistry ;  and  five  years  later,  he  was 
made  professor  of  organic  and  applied  chemistry  and  of 
pharmacy.  Meanwhile,  in  1868,  the  School  of  Pharmacy 
was  organized  and  charge  of  its  instruction  was  at  once 
given  to  Professor  Prescott.  Until  1880,  the  greater  por- 
tion of  the  special  and  practical  pharmaceutical  instruc- 
tion, including  the  laboratory  work  as  well  as  the  lectures, 
was  given  by  him  personally.  During  this  period  nearly 
140  contributions  of  original  investigations,  representing 
work  done  by  the  students  and  graduates  of  this  school, 
were  published  in  various  technical  journals.  These  re- 
searches were  made  under  the  supervision  of  Prescott. 

In  1876  he  became  Professor  of  Organic  Chemistry,  and 
the  researches,  conducted  in  the  chemical  laboratory  under 
his  direction,  have  been  published,  with  the  title  of  "Con- 
tributions from  the  Chemical  Laboratory  of  the  University 
of  Michigan. "  During  1875-78  they  appeared  in  the 
American  Chemist  and  Chemical  News;  in  1880,  in  the 
Journal  of  the  American  Chemical  Society  and  the  Ameri- 
can Chemical  Journal;  and,  in  1883  and  1884,  as  separate 

272 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

publications  in  association  with  Professor  Victor  C. 
Vaughan.  They  are  octavo  pamphlets,  averaging  fifty 
pages  each. 

While  distinctly  a  chemist,  the  investigations  of  Prescott 
were  naturally  in  the  direction  of  the  application  of  his 
chosen  science  to  that  of  pharmacy,  and  much  of  the 
work  executed  under  his  supervision  was  published  in 
the  American  Journal  of  Pharmacy.  During  1876-78  por- 
tions of  this  work  appeared  with  the  title  of  ' '  Contributions 
of  the  School  of  Pharmacy  of  the  University  of  Michigan, ' ' 
but  later  they  were  published  with  separate  titles. 

He  was  very  active  in  the  work  connected  with  the  re- 
vision of  the  "Pharmacopoeia  of  the  United  States. "  He 
served  as  a  member  of  the  revision  committee  in  1880, 
when  he  was  made  chairman  of  the  sub-committee  on  de- 
scriptive chemistry,  and  furnished  the  assay  methods  for 
opium  and  cinchona,  as  well  as  the  body  of  volumetric  tests, 
which  in  that  revision  appeared  for  the  first  time.  The 
general  introduction  of  qualitative  test  limits,  to  fix  the 
quantitative  standards  of  medicinal  purity  of  the  chemicals 
of  the  Pharmacopoeia,  was  first  undertaken  in  this  coun- 
try by  his  sub-committee. 

In  connection  with  the  revision  of  the  Pharmacopoeia  in 
1890  he  showed  considerable  activity,  and  prepared  an  "In- 
dex of  Contributions  from  the  Michigan  State  Pharmaceu- 
tical Association,  and  the  School  of  Pharmacy  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Michigan,"  to  aid  the  national  committee.  It 
covered  the  time  between  the  years  1883  and  1890,  and  in- 
cluded over  ninety  papers  that  represented  work  done 
under  his  supervision  in  the  School  of  Pharmacy.  Pres- 
cott was  an  active  member  of  the  Michigan  State  Pharma- 

273 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

ceutical  Association  from  its  organization  in  1883,  and  in 
1886  contributed  to  its  ' ' Proceedings "  an  "Outline  of  a 
Plan  of  Study  for  the  Assistant  in  Pharmacy, ' '  which  has 
been  extensively  circulated  in  reprint  form  in  response  to  a 
continuous  demand  for  it. 

Among  his  more  popular  contributions  to  scientific  lit- 
erature were  papers  on  "The  Material  Resources  of 
Life";  "The  Aromatic  Group  in  the  Chemistry  of  Plants"; 
"The  Chemistry  of  Coffee  and  Tea";  "The  Chemistry  of 
Fruit  Ripening";  "Nostrums  in  Their  Relation  to  Public 
Health";  and  "Poisons  and  Their  Antidotes."  The  fore- 
going are  a  few.  of  the  titles  that  appeared  in  The 
Popular  Science  Monthly,  Pharmaceutical  Journal,  and 
Transactions,  "Proceedings  of  the  Michigan  State  Board 
of  Health,"  and  Wood's  "Household  Practice  of  Medi- 
cine." He  wrote  for  other  technical  journals,  such  as  the 
London  Chemical  News  and  the  Engineering  and  Mining 
Journal. 

A  contemporary  of  his  has  well  said:  "His  writings 
inspired  respect  for  their  author,  for  they  were  always  im- 
portant, thorough,  and  conclusive  in  their  scope." 

His  text  books  are  well  known,  and  include  ' '  Qualitative 
Chemical  Analysis,"  with  Silas  H.  Douglas  (Ann  Arbor, 
1874;  fourth  edition  with  Otis  C.  Johnson,  New  York, 
1888);  "Outlines  of  Proximate  Organic  Analysis"  (New 
York,  1875);  "Chemical  Examination  of  Alcoholic  Liq- 
uors" (1875);  "First  Book  in  Qualitative  Chemistry" 
(1879)  ;  and  "Organic  Chemistry:  A  Manual  of  the  De- 
scriptive and  Analytical  Chemistry  of  Certain  Carbon 
Compounds  in  Common  Use"  (1887). 

The  last  named,  which  was  his  largest  work,  is  un- 

274 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

doubtedly  the  most  complete  and  valuable  book  on  the  sub- 
ject that  has  as  yet  been  written  by  an  American  chemist. 
He   was    a   Fellow   of   the   London   Chemical   Society 
and  President  of  the  American  Chemical  Society. 
(Condensed  from  a  more  exhaustive  biographical  contribu- 
tion by  Dr.  Marcus  Benjamin.) 

In  the  domain  of  agricultural  chemistry,  a  pioneer  and 
ardent  student  of  the  subject,  whose  influence  has  been 
most  potent  in  the  development  of  this  branch  of  science 
was  Samuel  W.  Johnson  (1830-1909).  He  was  born  in 
New  York  State.  His  education  was  obtained  in  the  Shef- 
field Scientific  School  of  Yale  University,  at  Leipsic  and 
Munich  in  Germany.  On  his  return  to  this  country  he 
became  actively  engaged  as  a  member  of  the  Yale  faculty, 
where  he  held  the  chair  of  Theoretical  and  Agricultural 
Chemistry.  He  published  a  few  articles  on  mineralogical 
subjects,  and  forty  or  more  on  pure  chemistry,  forms  of 
apparatus  and  methods  of  analysis.  His  first  publication 
was  on  il Fixing  Ammonia"  (1847).  He  contributed 
numerous  articles  to  the  American  Cultivator  (1854-1856). 
His  paper  on  "Peat"  (1859)  is  recognized  as  the  best 
agricultural  essay  on  this  subject.  His  ' '  How  Crops  Grow ' ' 
(1868)  has  been  more  widely  studied  than  any  other  work 
on  agriculture.  It  was  translated  into  Japanese,  Italian, 
Russian,  German,  and  Swedish.  The  supplementary  vol- 
ume "How  Crops  Feed"  (1870)  met  with  a  similar  hearty 
reception.  In  this  connection  his  own  words  may  be  used : 
' '  My  office  has  been  to  digest  the  cumbrous  mass  of  evidence 
in  which  the  truths  of  vegetable  nutrition  lie  buried  out  of 
the  reach  of  the  ordinary  inquirer  and  to  set  them  forth 

275 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

in  proper  order  and  in  plain  dress  for  their  legitimate  and 
sober  uses." 

Through  his  efforts  the  Connecticut  Experiment  Station 
— the  first  agricultural  experiment  station  on  the  Continent 
— was  established  (1875).  His  addresses  and  papers  before 
the  State  Agricultural  Society  and  the  State  Board  of  Agri- 
culture were  of  incalculable  value  and  aid  to  the  farmers. 
The  reports  of  these  societies  became  classic  as  an  en- 
cyclopedia of  agricultural  science. 

Johnson  was  president  of  the  American  Chemical  So- 
ciety (1878)  and  of  the  Association  of  American  Agricul- 
tural Colleges  and  Experiment  Stations  (1895).  He  was  a 
Fellow  of  the  American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences 
(1866) ,  and  a  member  of  the  National  Academy  of  Sciences. 

John  W.  Mallet  (1832-1912)  was  born  near  Dublin.  He 
received  his  baccalaureate  degree  from  the  University  of 
Dublin  (Trinity  College).  In  1849  he  published  "A  Chem- 
ical Examination  of  Killinite."  His  doctorate  was  ob- 
tained from  the  University  of  Goettingen  (1852)  with  a 
thesis  on  the  chemical  examination  of  Celtic  antiquities  in 
the  Museum  of  Dublin.  In  1853  he  came  to  the  United 
States  and  for  one  term  was  professor  of  analytical  chem- 
istry in  Amherst  College.  In  1854  he  assumed  the  post  of 
chemist  to  the  Geological  Survey  of  Alabama  and  the  pro- 
fessorship of  chemistry  in  the  University  of  Alabama, 
where  he  continued  until  1861.  During  these  years  he  an- 
alyzed many  rare  minerals  and  communicated  his  results  to 
the  American  Journal  of  Science.  His  published  contribu- 
tions number  more  than  one  hundred,  notable  among  which 
are :  "A  Determination  of  the  Atomic  Weight  of  Lithium ' ' 

276 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

(1856),  "The  Atomic  Weight  of  Aluminium"  (1857, 1880), 
and  a  revision  of  the  Atomic  Weight  of  Gold  (1889). 

1 '  In  May,  1862,  Mallet  then,  as  always,  a  British  subject, 
was  given  general  supervision  of  the  manufacture  of  am- 
munition for  the  Southern  Confederacy,  in  which  capacity 
he  was  most  actively  engaged  throughout  the  war. ' ' 

In  the  fall  of  1865  he  was  professor  in  Tulane  University. 
In  1868  he  took  up  similar  duties  at  the  University  of  Vir- 
ginia. In  1883  he  changed  to  the  University  of  Texas. 
The  following  year  he  held  a  similar  appointment  at  the 
Jefferson  Medical  College,  Philadelphia,  but  the  next  ses- 
sion returned  to  the  University  of  Virginia,  where  he  re- 
mained until  his  death. 

"Long  is  the  roll  of  those  who  will  ever  recall  with 
thankfulness  the  privilege  of  sitting  under  his  teaching." 

He  was  the  recipient  of  many  honors. 

Chemists  of  America  are  justly  proud  of  the  splendid 
researches  of  M.  Carey  Lea  (1823-1897).  Working  quietly 
and  modestly,  he  made  a  marked  impress  upon  the  science ; 
indeed,  in  the  domain  of  photochemistry  he  was  a  true 
pioneer.  His  numerous  studies,  both  chemical  and  physical, 
have  been  sympathetically  and  exhaustively  reviewed  by 
Dr.  G.  F.  Barker  in  Biographical  Memoirs  of  the  National 
Academy  of  Sciences,  Vol.  5,  157.  From  this  fascinating 
brochure  the  following  paragraphs  have  been  extracted : 

In  his  paper  "On  Numerical  Relations  existing  between 
the  Equivalent  Numbers  of  Elementary  Bodies,"  Lea 
undertook  to  show  that  the  number  44.45  plays  an  im- 
portant part  in  the  science  of  stoichiometry,  and  that  the 
relations  which  depend  upon  it  are  supported,  in  some 

277 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

cases  at  least,  in  a  remarkable  manner,  by  analogies  of 
atomic  volume. 

His  numerical  computations  show  that  that  relation 
spoken  of  extends  to  no  less  than  forty-eight  of  the  ele- 
mentary bodies. 

In  the  second  part  of  this  paper  a  new  and  wholly  dis- 
tinct relation  is  pointed  out,  which  Lea  called  a  relation  of 
"geometrical  ratios "  to  distinguish  it  from  the  relation 
of  arithmetical  differences.  Their  nature  consists  in  this: 
' '  that  if  we  take  two  substances  and  examine  the  ratio  which 
subsists  between  the  numbers  representing  their  atomic 
weights,  we  may  find  in  certain  cases  that  it  is  identical 
with  the  ratio  subsisting  between  the  atomic  weights  of  two 
other  substances. " 

In  1864,  he  published  two  papers  on  the  Platinum 
group  entitled  (1)  "Notes  on  the  Platinum  Metals  and 
Their  Separation  from  Each  Other,"  and  (2)  "On  Reac- 
tions of  Platinum  Metals. ' ' 

The  use  of  oxalic  acid  for  purifying  the  double  chloride 
of  iridium  and  ammonium  was  here  proposed  for  the  first 
time  and  possessed  marked  advantages  over  the  older 
methods.  It  also  calls  attention  to  a  new  reaction  for 
ruthenium:  when  a  solution  of  hyposulphite  of  soda  is 
mixed  with  ammonia  and  a  few  drops  of  sesquichloride  of 
ruthenium  solution  is  added,  a  magnificent  red-purple 
liquid  is  produced,  which,  unless  quite  dilute,  is  black  by 
transmitted  light.  The  chief  value  of  this  test  for  ruthe- 
nium lies  in  the  fact  that  it  is  capable  of  detecting  ruthe- 
nium in  presence  of  an  excess  of  iridium. 

In  1866  Lea  called  attention  to  the  great  increase  of 
delicacy  which  is  produced  in  the  starch  reaction  for  iodine 
by  adding  chromic  acid  to  the  solution. 

In  1874,  he  described  a  new  compound  formed  by  the 
union  of  mercuric  iodide,  with  silver  chloride,  analogous 
to  the  double  iodide  of  mercury  and  silver,  and  that  of 
mercury  and  copper,  which  had  already  been  obtained  by 

278 


M.  CAREY  LEA 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

Meusel.  The  substance  exhibits  remarkable  properties  in 
its  relations  to  heat.  Even  below  100°  it  begins  to  redden, 
and  the  color  increases  up  to  about  140°,  when  it  has  a 
bright  scarlet  color,  resembling  vermilion.  On  cooling,  its 
natural  color  returns. 

In  a  paper  "On  the  Nature  of  Certain  Solutions  and  on 
a  New  Means  of  Investigating  Them"  (1893)  he  pointed 
out  that  two  classes  of  salts  are  formed  by  the  three  best 
known  acids ;  the  one  perfectly  natural,  like  the  alkali  salts, 
the  other  decomposed  by  water  like  mercuric  sulphate,  bis- 
muth nitrate,  and  stannous  chloride. 

From  an  extended  investigation  of  the  conditions,  the 
author  concludes: 

(1)  that  the  solution  of  iodo-quinine  affords  the  means 
of  connecting  free  sulphuric  acid  even  in  traces,  in  presence 
of  combined  sulphuric  acid;  (2)  that  the  salts  of  protoxides 
of  the  heavy  metals  do  not  owe  their  acid  reaction  to  dis- 
sociation. With  one  exception,  the  solutions  of  their  sul- 
phates contain  no  free  sulphuric  acid.  This  exception  is 
ferrous  sulphate,  whose  solutions  always  contain  free  acid ; 

(3)  that  sesquisulphates  are  always  dissociated  in  solution; 

(4)  that  alums,  with  the  exception  of  chrome  alum,  are 
always  dissociated  in  solution;  and  (5)  that  acid  salts  are 
dissociated  in  solution;  sometimes  perhaps  completely. 

Another  noteworthy  paper  of  the  following  year  (1894) 
was  a  '  *  New  Method  of  Determining  the  Relative  Affinities 
of  Certain  Acids. ' '  This  method  was  based  on  the  principle 
that  "the  affinity  of  any  acid  is  proportionate  to  the 
amount  of  base  which  it  can  retain  in  the  presence  of  a 
strong  acid  selected  as  a  standard  of  comparison  for  all 
acids. ' '  This  contribution  contains  much  that  is  of  value  at 
the  present  time. 

The  same  year  (1894)  he  proposed  two  new  methods  for 
reducing  platinic  to  platinous  chloride — one  by  the  action 
of  potassium  acid  sulphite,  the  other  by  that  of  alkali  hypo- 
phosphites. 

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CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

In  organic  chemistry,  Lea  also  made  many  valuable  in- 
vestigations. He  published  very  early  a  series  of  papers  on 
picric  acid  and  its  compounds,  giving  in  the  first  of  these, 
which  appeared  in  1858,  an  important  modification  of  one 
of  the  processes  for  preparing  the  acid. 

In  a  second  paper  he  discussed  the  claim  made  for  pic- 
ric acid  as  a  test  for  potash. 

In  1861  he  gave  a  resume  of  his  observations  on  picric 
acid,  considering  its  solubility  in  sulphuric  acid,  the  tests 
for  it,  the  methods  of  its  purification,  and  the  effect  of 
reducing  agents  upon  it. 

Subsequently  Lea  made  a  number  of  studies  on  the 
ethyl  and  methyl  bases.  For  preparing  ethylamine  he  ad- 
vises to  mix  nitrate  of  ethyl  with  its  own  volume  of  strong 
alcohol,  and  to  add  an  equal  bulk  of  a  concentrated  solu- 
tion of  ammonia.  On  placing  the  liquid  in  strong  tubes 
and  heating  on  the  water  bath  to  boiling  for  three  hours, 
the  reaction  is  completed,  diethylamine  and  triethylamine 
being  formed  at  the  same  time.  To  separate  these  bases 
from  each  other  they  were  converted  into  picrates,  the 
triethylamine  salt  being  extremely  insoluble,  the  salt  of 
diethylamine  extremely  soluble,  and  the  solubility  of  ethyl- 
amine picrate  intermediate. 

He  afterwards  prepared,  methyl  bases  by  heating  to- 
gether strong  ammonia  and  methyl  nitrate,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  ethyl  bases.  The  chief  product  was  methylamine. 
For  the  preparation  of  the  methyl  nitrate  he  found  the 
use  of  urea,  dissolved  in  the  methyl  alcohol,  a  most  satis- 
factory modification. 

In  obtaining  urea  from  ferrocyanide  of  potassium,  Lea 
effected  a  more  complete  oxidation  by  the  use  of  a  larger 
quantity  of  red  lead.  He  obtained  as  much  as  500  grams 
of  urea  from  850  grams  ferrocyanide. 

In  1861,  while-  preparing  naphthylamine  by  the  reduc- 
tion of  nitronaphthalin,  he  observed  that  if  heat  be  applied 
before  adding  the  caustic,  alkali  a  distillate  is  obtained 

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CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

which  has  a  pale  reddish  color  and  which  possessed  the 
disgusting  odor  of  naphthylamine.  Mineral  acids  change 
its  color  to  pale  violet.  Heated  with  sulphuric  acid  it 
becomes  a  rich  blue-purple  and  deposits  after  a  time  a 
small  quantity  of  a  black  crystalline  precipitate.  For  this 
new  coloring  matter  he  proposed  the  name  ionaphthine. 

Subsequently  he  described  another  colored  derivative 
of  naphthalin,  obtained  in  the  course  of  preparation  of 
the  chloride  by  passing  chlorine  over  it. 

In  a  paper  published  in  1865  he  calls  attention  to  a 
new  reaction  of  gelatine,  the  first  ever  described  as  pro- 
duced between  pure  gelatine  and  a  perfectly  colorless  re- 
agent. When  a  piece  of  gelatine  is  dropped  into  a  solu- 
tion of  pernitrate  of  mercury  it  gradually  assumes  a  strong 
red  coloration  and  after  a  time  dissolves  completely  to  a 
fine  red  solution.  On  boiling  for  some  minutes,  its  color 
deepens ;  but  it  is  quickly  decolorized  by  chlorate  of  potash. 
Metagelatine,  prepared  by  allowing  gelatine  to  swell  in 
a  cold  saturated  solution  of  oxalic  acid,  then  heating  mod- 
erately until  the  mass  remained  fluid  on  cooling,  and  re- 
moving the  oxalic  acid  by  carbonate  of  lime,  was  found  to 
give  the  red  coloration  even  more  decidedly  than  ordinary 
gelatine. 

In  a  paper  on  the  detection  of  hydrocyanic  acid  Lea 
gives  the  test.  If  a  pure  protosalt  of  iron,  such  as  fer- 
rous-ammonium sulphate,  mixed  with  a  little  uranic 
nitrate,  be  dissolved  in  water,  the  solution  gives,  with  a 
soluble  cyanide,  a  purple  precipitate,  which  in  very  dilute 
solutions  is  grayish  purple.  The  solution  should  be  quite 
neutral  and  nearly  colorless. 

Besides  his  purely  chemical  papers,  he  published  many 
others  in  the  domain  of  physics.  As  early  as  1860  he  called 
attention  to  the  optical  properties  of  picrate  of  manganese, 
and  made  an  extended  study  upon  it. 

In  1861  Sprengel  had  devised  an  air  blast  for  labora- 
tory use  founded  on  the  well-known  Catalan  trompe  (Am. 

281 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

Jour.  Sci.,  II,  xxxii,  425).  The  following  year  Lea  con- 
ceived that  the  principle  might  be  made  use  of  for  aspirat- 
ing as  well  as  for  blowing,  and  he  described  an  apparatus 
performing  both  functions  simultaneously,  and  admirably 
adapted  to  the  purpose.  This  apparatus,  in  the  form  of 
the  Bunsen  filter  pump,  has  since  come  into  general  use, 
especially  for  laboratory  purposes;  and,  as  modified  and 
improved  by  Crookes,  it  has  made  possible  to  science 
the  high  vacua  which  he  has  so  thoroughly  studied, 
and  to  electric  lighting  the  construction  of  the  incandes- 
cent lamp. 

Lea  (1869),  having  observed  that  when  a  beam  of  sun- 
light is  thrown  upon  a  white  screen  at  fifteen  or  twenty 
feet  distance,  and  a  plate  of  finely  ground  glass  is  inter- 
posed, the  white  light  acquires  a  deep  orange  yellow  color, 
set  himself  to  investigate  the  phenomenon.  Three  aspects 
of  it  were  observed :  First,  where  a  strong  beam  of  yellow, 
red,  or  reddish  yellow  direct  light  is  produced  without  the 
complementary  blue  being  visible  and  simultaneously  the 
blue,  the  latter  diffused;  and  third,  where  reddish  and 
bluish  light,  both  diffused,  are  simultaneously  visible.  He 
concludes  that  all  these  results  are  due  to  interference,  and 
are  capable  of  satisfactory  explanation  upon  this  hypoth- 
esis. 

By  far  the  most  valuable  as  well  as  the  most  extended 
investigations  of  Lea,  however,  were  those  which  related 
to  the  chemistry  of  photography,  in  which  at  the  time  of 
his  death  he  was  the  acknowledged  authority.  His  re- 
searches were  directed  chiefly  to  the  chemical  and  physical 
properties  of  the  silver  halide  salts,  not  only  alone,  but  also 
in  combination  with  each  other  and  with  various  coloring 
matters,  especially  with  reference  to  the  action  of  light 
upon  them  under  all  these  different  conditions. 

In  one  of  his  papers  (1865)  he  gave  a  series  of  experi- 
ments which  seemed  to  him  to  decisively  close  the  con- 
troversy then  in  progress  in  favor  of  the  physical  theory — 

282 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

i.  e.,  the  theory  that  the  change  which  takes  place  in  an 
iodobromized  plate  in  the  camera  is  a  purely  physical  one ; 
that  no  chemical  decomposition  takes  place,  and  hence 
that  neither  liberation  of  iodine  nor  reduction  of  silver  re- 
sults. 

In  1866,  he  prepared  a  resume  of  a  series  of  investiga- 
tions whose  object  was  to  fix  with  greater  exactness  the 
obscure  chemical  and  physical  phenomena  which  lie  at  the 
basis  of  the  photographic  art,  the  details  of  which  had  been 
published  in  the  photographic  journals.  While  it  may  be 
conceded  that  silver  chloride  and  bromide  undergo  re- 
duction while  exposed  to  light,  opinions  differ  as  to  the 
iodide.  Pure  silver  iodide,  he  maintained,  when  ex- 
posed to  light,  received  a  physical  impression  only; 
but  if  certain  other  substances,  such  as  silver  ni- 
trate, tannin,  etc.,  are  present,  then  a  chemical  action, 
a  reduction,  may  take  place.  In  proof  of  the  first  state- 
ment a  glass  plate  surrounding  a  film  of  pure  silver  iodide 
was  exposed  to  sunlight  for  many  hours,  then  enclosed  in 
a  dark  closet  for  thirty-six  hours,  then  placed  under  a 
negative  and  exposed  to  light  for  two  seconds.  On  pouring 
a  developer  over  it  a  clear,  bright  picture  instantly  ap- 
peared. Hence  the  action  of  the  sun  for  many  hours  had 
produced  an  impression  which  disappeared  completely  in 
thirty-six  hours.  If  the  action  of  light  was  to  reduce  the 
iodide  in  sub-iodide,  how  does  this  sub-iodide  receive  its 
lost  proportion  of  iodine?  The  fact  that  the  iodide  was 
much  more  powerfully  affected  by  a  recent  exposure  of  two 
seconds  than  by  one  which,  though  thirty-six  hours  old, 
was  only  a  thousand  times  as  strong,  and  in  light  much 
more  intense,  seemed  fatal  to  the  chemical  theory.  By 
means  of  other  direct  and  indirect  experimental  evidence 
he  concluded  that  the  action  of  light  upon  pure  isolated 
silver  iodide  cannot  be  a  chemical  reduction. 

In  a  paper  on  "  Contributions  Toward  a  Theory  of 
Photo-Chemistry,"  published  in  1^)7,  Lea  developed  a 

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CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

markably  ingenious  theory  based  on  the  phenomena  ob- 
served in  silver  iodide,  which  are  the  key  to  the  whole 
subject.  When  this  iodide  is  exposed  to  light  it  acquires 
a  new  property,  that  of  attracting  to  itself  a  metallic  pre- 
cipitate in  the  act  of  forming,  or  a  metallic  vapor  ready 
formed.  A  film  of  this  iodide  exposed  for  many  hours  to 
a  bright  sun  does  not  further  darken  beyond  the  change 
produced  by  the  first  instance  of  diffuse  light;  and  then 
if  put  in  the  dark  for  a  brief  time  it  re-acquires  the  capac- 
ity to  receive  an  image  by  exposure  for  a  second.  What, 
then,  is  the  nature  of  this  change — this  impression  received 
in  a  second  and  then  slowly  passing  spontaneously  away? 
Lea  found  the  answer  in  the  phenomena  of  phosphorescence. 
When  silver  chloride  is  exposed  to  light  it  becomes  violet 
in  color,  losing  one-half  its  chloride — i.  e.,  it  is  decomposed ; 
but  when  silver  iodide  is  thus  exposed  no  chemical  change 
takes  place,  but  the  impression  is  for  a  time  persistent. 
The  "physical  impression  of  light  is  a  persistence  of  the 
invisible  (or  chemical)  rays  exactly  parallel  to  the  per- 
sistence of  visible  or  luminous  rays  in  phosphorescence." 
For  this  function  of  light,  the  existence  of  which  produces 
the  physical  change  suffered  by  exposed  silver  iodide,  Lea 
proposed  the  term  actinescence.  Just  as  in  the  case  of  phos- 
phorescence, a  body  temporarily  retains  light  and  subse- 
quently emits  it,  this  emission  being  rendered  evident  by 
luminous  phenomena,  so  by  actinescence  we  have  the  phe- 
nomena of  the  storing  up  of  light,  where  certain  objects 
exposed  to  light  and  then  carried  into  darkness  have  ac- 
quired the  power  of  acting  chemically  upon  other  bodies 
with  which  they  were  placed  in  contact. 

In  a  paper  in  1868  Lea  pointed  out  the  well-known  fact 
that  silver  bromide,  when  exposed  to  light,  undergoes  de- 
composition, with  elimination  either  of  bromine  or  a  bro- 
mine compound,  being  at  the  same  time  reduced  to  sub- 
bromide,  the  result  being  a  distinct  darkening.  In  his  ex- 
periments organic  matter  was  eliminated  by  forming  the 

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CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

film  on  a  plate  of  glass,  first  by  silvering  it,  and  then 
treating  it  with  bromine  or  iodine.  On  exposure  for  four 
hours  the  pure  and  isolated  bromide  film  gave  a  distinct 
impression.  Since  silver  iodide  is  not  thus  decomposed, 
the  latent  image  produced  by  its  exposure  to  light  must 
be  purely  physical.  The  object  of  the  paper  was  to  show 
that  silver  bromide  is  also  capable  of  forming  a  latent 
image,  in  which  chemical  decomposition  plays  no  part,  and 
which  therefore  must  be  distinguished  from  a  chemical 
image.  This  physical  image,  however,  is  quite  different 
from  that  formed  on  silver  iodide.  While  on  the  latter  the 
physical  image  is  produced  only  when  the  iodide  is  isolated 
from  all  other  bodies,  that  on  the  bromide  is  found  only  in 
the  presence  of  organic  matter;  and,  secondly,  while  the 
physical  image  on  silver  iodide  can  be  called  forth  only 
in  the  presence  of  silver  or  of  some  other  metallic  body,  this 
image  on  silver  bromide  can  be  developed  in  the  complete 
absence  of  any  metallic  body.  Let  a  collodion  film  con- 
taining silver  bromide  and  free  silver  nitrate  be  formed 
on  glass,  washed,  plunged  into  a  solution  of  tannin,  and 
dried.  Expose  this  for  a  short  time  in  the  camera.  A 
latent  image  is  formed.  Place  the  plate  in  pyrogallol  solu- 
tion and  the  image  appears.  But  how  is  this  ?  It  cannot 
be  that  an  infinitesimal  chemical  image  of  sub-bromide, 
acting  as  a  nucleus,  was  brought  up  to  a  visible  intensity 
by  the  action  of  the  developer,  because  pyrogallol  alone  has 
no  power  to  do  this,  and  because  free  silver  nitrate  must 
also  be  present,  and  this  had  been  removed  in  the  washing. 
The  only  alternative  is  that  that  portion  of  the  film  upon 
which  the  light  had  acted  was  so  modified  thereby  that  it 
was  brought  into  a  condition  to  be  more  easily  decomposed 
by  pyrogallol  than  the  portion  which  had  not  been  acted 
on.  Now,  if  portions  of  the  bromide  film  not  decomposed 
by  light,  but  simply  acted  on  by  it,  are  subsequently  de- 
composed by  the  action  of  pyrogallol,  while  those  portions 
of  the  film  not  influenced  by  light  are  not  decomposed  by 

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CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

the  pyrogallol,  then  it  follows  that  the  action  of  the  light 
is  so  far  simply  physical. 

In  1878  Lea  sought  to  determine  the  precise  amount 
of  material  actually  altered  by  the  action  of  light.  Silver 
chloride,  precipitated  with  excess  of  hydrochloric  acid, 
and  well  washed,  was  exposed  to  bright  sunlight  for  five 
days.  Two  grams  of  the  dark  powder  were  thoroughly 
treated  with  sodium  hyposulphite  to  remove  the  unaltered 
chloride.  The  residue  weighed  twenty-one  milligrams, 
showing  that  only  about  1  per  cent,  of  the  chloride  had 
been  acted  on.  If  it  be  assumed  that  the  action  consists 
in  the  removal  of  one-half  the  chlorine,  the  whole  loss  in 
weight  by  the  action  of  the  light  would  be  only  a  little 
more  than  one-tenth  of  1  per  cent.  As  the  best  reagents 
for  removing  the  unaltered  chloride  are  liquid  ammonia 
and  sodium  hyposulphite,  and  as  both  of  them  attack  the 
altered  substance,  the  difficulty  in  verifying  the  nature 
of  the  action  of  light  is  very  considerable.  Nitric  acid  does 
not  attack  the  darkened  portion  of  the  silver  chloride  in 
the  least,  while  the  dark  residue  left  by  the  above  reagents 
is  instantly  dissolved  by  cold  nitric  acid  with  evolution  of 
red  fumes.  Evidently  no  metallic  silver  is  produced  by 
the  action  of  the  light,  while  it  is  produced  by  the  subse- 
quent action  of  the  ammonia  and  the  hyposulphite.  Since 
the  black  substance  is  made  white  by  aqua  regia,  it  evi- 
dently contains  less  chlorine  than  the  chloride,  and  so  may 
be  either  a  subchloride  or  an  oxychloride.  The  substance 
produced  by  the  action  of  light  on  silver  chloride  is  of  a 
much  more  permanent  character  than  in  the  case  of  the 
other  silver  halides. 

When  silver  iodide  is  blackened  under  ammonia  solu- 
tion in  a  test-tube  and  set  aside  in  the  dark  for  a  day  or 
two,  the  iodide  assumes  a  singular  pinkish  shade.  Hence 
it  appears  that  silver  iodide,  under  the  influence  of  am- 
monia and  of  light,  gives  indications  of  most  of  the  colors 
of  the  spectrum.  Starting  with  white,  it  passes  under  the 

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CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

influence  of  light  to  violet  and  thence  nearly  to  black.  This 
violet-black  substance,  washed  with  water,  passes  to  brown. 
The  brown  body,  when  covered  with  ammonia  and  left 
to  itself  in  an  open-test  tube,  becomes  pinkish  in  the 
dark  and  yellow  in  sunlight.  These  curious  relations 
to  color  observed  in  the  silver  halides  seem  to  give  hope 
of  the  eventful  discovery  of  some  complete  method  of 
heliochromy. 

In  1874  Lea  made  an  extended  series  of  experiments  to 
test  a  theory  advanced  shortly  before  by  Vogel,  to  the  effect 
that  substances  placed  in  contact  with  silver  bromide  mod- 
ify its  impressibility  by  rays  of  different  refrangibilities. 
His  results  seemed  to  establish  the  fact  that  there  is  no 
general  law  connecting  the  color  of  a  substance  with  the 
greater  or  less  sensitiveness  which  it  brings  to  any  silver 
halide  for  any  particular  ray. 

In  1875  an  elaborate  investigation  was  made  on  the 
action  of  the  less  refrangible  rays  of  light  on  silver  iodide 
and  bromide.  Experiments  were  also  made  to  test  the 
theory  that  light  consists  of  two  classes  of  rays,  the 
"exciting"  and  the  "continuing"  rays.  The  conclusions 
reached  as  a  consequence  of  the  one  hundred  and  sixty  ex- 
periments made  were : 

1.  Silver  bromide  and  iodide  are  sensitive  to  all  the 
visible  rays  of  the  spectrum. 

2.  Silver   iodide   is  more   sensitive  than  the  bromide 
to  all  the  less  refrangible  rays,  and  also  to  white  light. 

3.  The   sensitiveness   of   silver  bromide   to   the   green 
rays  is  materially  increased  by  the  presence  of  free  silver 
nitrate. 

4.  Silver  bromide  and  silver  iodide  together  are  more 
sensitive  to  both  the  green  and  the  red  rays  (and  probably 
to  all  rays)   than  either  the  bromide  or  the  iodide  sep- 
arately. 

5.  There  do  not  exist  any  rays  with  a  special  exciting 
or  a  special  continuing  power,  but  all  the  colored  rays  are 

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capable  both  of  commencing  and  continuing  the  impres- 
sion on  silver  iodide  and  bromide. 

In  a  research  published  in  1876,  Lea  confined  himself 
to  the  question :  Does  there  exist  any  red  substance  which 
is  capable  of  increasing  the  sensitiveness  of  silver  bromide 
to  the  green  rays?  The  result  was  that  not  a  single  red 
substance  could  be  found  that  possessed  that  property, 
while  no  less  than  eight  colorless  substances  exhibited  it. 
Hence  the  conclusion:  ''There  exists  no  relation  between 
the  color  of  a  substance  and  that  of  the  rays  to  which  it 
increased  the  sensitiveness  of  silver  bromide/' 

In  1877,  he  pointed  out  that  salts  of  silver  may  exhibit 
sensitiveness  to  light  in  three  ways:  They  may  exhibit  a 
sensible  darkening  or  they  may  receive  a  latent  image ;  and 
this  may  have  a  capacity  of  being  rendered  visible  either  by 
receiving  a  deposit  of  metallic  silver  or  by  decomposition 
by  alkalies  in  connection  with  reducing  agents. 

Since  the  development  of  the  latent  or  invisible  photo- 
graphic image  produced  by  the  action  of  light  is,  beyond 
all  question,  the  most  remarkable  and  the  most  interesting 
fact  in  photochemistry,  it  is  surprising  with  what  slowness 
our  knowledge  of  the  substances  capable  of  producing  this 
effect  has  increased.  In  1877  he  further  made  an  extended 
examination  of  substances  likely  to  act  as  developers.  The 
results  show  (1)  that  the  number  of  bodies  endowed  with 
the  power  of  developing  the  latent  image,  so  far  from  being 
very  limited,  as  hitherto  supposed,  is,  on  the  contrary,  very 
large;  and  (2)  that  potash  acts  more  powerfully  in  aiding 
development  than  ammonia,  contrary  to  the  general  opin- 
ion. Moreover,  he  observed  that  the  use  of  free  alkali  is 
not  necessary  to  the  most  energetic  development,  as  has 
been  supposed;  and  this  led  him  to  devise  a  form  of  de- 
velopment which,  though  there  is  no  free  alkali  present, 
is  more  powerful  than  any  yet  known.  Among  the 
various  developing  substances  examined,  the  salts  of  fer- 
rous oxide  proved  to  be  the  most  interesting  and  remark- 

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CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

able  of  all  in  their  action  on  the  image ;  and  of  these,  fer- 
rous oxalate  exhibited  developing  powers  of  a  very  marked 
kind.  The  same  exposure  which  with  alkaline  pyrogallol 
gives  a  weak  and  sunk-in  image  after  a  protracted  de- 
velopment gave  with  ferrous  oxalate  a  bright,  bold  image 
and  in  much  less  time.  The  development  was  particularly 
clear  and  clean.  The  unexposed  parts  were  not  attacked. 
The  developer  possessed  a  great  deal  of  that  elective  power 
previously  mentioned,  which  caused  it  to  react  strongly 
on  those  parts  which  received  the  influence  of  light  and  to 
spare  those  which  have  not.  Three  years  later  the  study 
of  the  developing  power  of  ferrous  salts  was  resumed  and 
active  ferrous  salts  were  found  to  be  the  borate,  phosphate, 
sulphite,  and  oxalate. 

The  fact  is  well  known  that  certain  organic  substances, 
tannin,  for  example,  placed  in  contact  with  the  washed 
halide,  increase  its  sensitiveness.  Poitevin  and  Vogel  pro- 
posed the  theory  that  these  substances  acted  in  virtue  of 
their  affinity  for  the  halogen.  But  Carey  Lea  pointed  out 
soon  afterward  that  the  one  property  that  these  substances 
possess  in  common  is  that  they  are  all  reducing  agents. 
Hence  he  concludes  that  their  action  is  due  to  the  fact  that 
they  abstract  the  halogen,  but  that  their  affinity  comes  in 
to  aid  the  affinity  of  the  halogen  for  the  hydrogen,  and 
that  under  the  influence  of  the  light  water  is  decomposed. 
According  to  this  view,  whenever  silver  iodide  is  exposed  to 
light  in  presence  of  an  organic  body  capable  of  accelerating 
the  action  of  this  agent,  there  should  be  formed  traces  of 
free  acid;  whereas  the  Poitevin- Vogel  theory  requires  the 
formation  of  an  iodo-substitution  compound.  To  test  the 
question,  silver  iodide  precipitated  with  excess  of  potas- 
sium iodide  was  well  washed,  and  exposed,  after  receiving 
a  small  quantity  of  pyrogallol,  to  sunlight  for  fifteen  min- 
utes in  presence  of  water.  The  liquid,  which  was  at  first 
neutral,  showed  a  distinct  acid  reaction  at  the  end  of  fif- 
teen minutes.  Again,  on  the  Poitevin- Vogel  theory,  a 

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CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

substance  having  an  affinity  for  iodine  should  increase 
the  sensitiveness,  and  substances  not  having  it  should  have 
no  such  action.  But  this  is  not  the  fact.  Substances  like 
potassium  carbonate  solution  and  like  starch,  for  example, 
which  have  an  affinity  for  iodine,  do  not  appear  to  increase 
the  sensitiveness  of  silver  iodide  by  contact  with  it.  Hence 
he  concludes  that  such  organic  bodies  as  increase  the  sensi- 
tiveness of  the  silver  halides  to  light  do  so  not  by  forming 
substitution  compounds  with  the  halogen,  but  by  promot- 
ing, in  virtue  of  their  affinity  for  oxygen,  the  decomposi- 
tion of  water  by  this  halogen. 

As  early  as  1866  Lea  had  proved  that  the  intense 
black  substance  produced  by  the  action  of  light  upon  silver 
iodide  in  presence  of  silver  nitrate  contains  iodine,  and 
therefore  is  either  a  sub-iodide  or  an  oxy-iodide.  In  1874 
he  extended  his  examination  to  silver  bromide.  He  observed 
that  when  silver  bromide  is  treated  with  pyrogallol  and 
alkali  after  exposure  to  light,  the  black  substance  contains 
bromine,  and  is  resolved  by  nitric  acid  into  normal  silver 
bromide  and  silver,  which  latter  is  dissolved.  It  is  there- 
fore either  a  sub-bromide  or  an  oxy-bromide,  probably  the 
former.  In  1878  he  proved  the  same  fact  for  the  black 
substance  given  by  the  chloride  when  acted  on  by  light. 

Perhaps  his  most  important  contribution  to  photo- 
chemistry was  his  discovery  of  the  photosalts.  His  earliest 
paper  on  the  subject  appeared  in  1885,  and  described  the 
remarkable  property  possessed  by  the  silver  halides  of 
entering  into  chemical  combination  with  certain  coloring 
matters  in  somewhat  the  same  way  as  alumina  does,  form- 
ing lakes.  The  freshly  precipitated  and  still  moist  silver 
salt  is  brought  into  contact  with  the  coloring  matter,  or  it 
is  precipitated  in  presence  of  it.  The  union  takes  place 
readily,  and  the  color  cannot  be  washed  out.  What  is 
curious  and  seems  to  be  evidence  that  the  combination  is 
intimate  is  the  fact  that  the  color  assumed  by  the  silver 
salt  may  differ  considerably  from  that  of  the  dye.  The 

290 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

three  halides  may  even  be  differently  colored  by  the  same 
coloring  substance.  Generally,  however,  coloring  matters 
impart  their  own  shade  or  something  like  it  to  the  halide. 
The  bromide  precipitated  in  presence  of  silver  nitrate  takes 
from  aniline  purple  a  strong  purple  color,  from  cardinal 
red  a  bright  flesh  or  salmon  color,  from  naphthalin  yellow 
a  yellow  color.  Sometimes  different  specimens  of  the  same 
coloring  matter  give  different  colors.  Silver  bromide  re- 
ceived from  one  specimen  of  methyl  green  a  bluish  green, 
while  another  specimen  of  the  same  dye  produced  in  it  a 
deep  purplish  color.  As  early  as  1868  he  had  proposed  * 
to  color  or  stain  the  photographic  film  in  order  to  modify 
its  behavior  toward  light — i.  e.,  to  prevent  blurring  or 
irradiation.  At  that  time  the  best  color  was  found  to  be 
red  litmus.  The  theory  of  Vogel  that  a  film  thus  colored 
gained  sensitiveness  to  those  rays  of  the  spectrum  which 
the  coloring  matter  absorbs  is  made  improbable  by  the  fact 
that  the  color  in  the  film  tends  to  arrest  precisely  those 
rays  to  which  it  is  proposed  to  render  the  silver  salt  more 
sensitive.  John  W.  Draper's  view  that  substances  sensi- 
tive to  light  are  affected  by  the  rays  which  they  absorb 
seems  a  priori  more  probable.  Lea,  however,  observed  that 
the  effect  will  depend,  first,  upon  the  capacity  of  the  dye 
to  combine  with  the  silver  halide,  and,  second,  not  on  the 
proper  color  of  the  isolated  dye,  but  on  the  color  that 
the  silver  halide  acquires  from  it. 

The  paper  containing  his  photosalt  theory  was  pub- 
lished in  1887.  Of  the  two  theories  of  the  latent  photo- 
graphic image,  the  physical  and  the  chemical  one,  he  had 
inclined  at  the  outset  to  the  first  of  these.  Of  late  years  re- 
sults have  been  obtained  not  readily  reconcilable  with  it. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  theory  that  the  latent  image  is 
formed  of  subsalts  is  open  to  the  objection  that  while  sub- 
salts  are  readily  attacked  by  nitric  acid,  the  latent  image 
may  be  exposed  without  effect  to  this  acid.  Three  years 

*  British  Journal  of  Photography,  xv,  210,  506,  1868. 

291 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

of  laboratory  work  had  led  him  to  a  truer  theory,  based 
on  the  fact  that  silver  halides  are  capable  of  uniting  with 
coloring  matters  to  form  stable  compounds.  He  now 
found  that  in  much  the  same  way  a  silver  halide  may  unite 
with  a  certain  proportion  of  its  own  subsalt  to  form  colored 
compounds,  which  by  this  union  loses  its  characteristic  in- 
stability and  yields  a  compound  of  great  permanence. 
When  silver  chloride,  bromide,  or  iodide  contains  as  little 
as  one-half  of  one  per  cent,  of  subsalt  combined  with  it, 
its  properties  are  greatly  changed.  It  has  a  strong  colora- 
tion and  its  behavior  to  light  is  altered.  It  is  one  of  the 
forms  of  this  substance  which  constitutes  the  actual  ma- 
terial of  the  latent  photographic  image.  Of  the  three, 
the  chlorine  salt  is  the  most  stable  and  exhibits  the  finer 
variety  of  coloration.  Hence  it  is  the  most  interesting  be- 
cause of  its  relations  to  heliochromy.  It  shows  all  the 
warm  shades  from  white  to  black  through  the  following 
graduations;  white,  pale  flesh  color,  pale  pink,  rose  color, 
copper  color,  red  purple,  dark  chocolate,  black.  These 
compounds  are  obtained  in  an  endless  variety  of  ways — by 
chlorizing  metallic  silver;  by  acting  on  normal  chloride 
with  reducing  agents;  by  partly  reducing  silver  oxide  or 
silver  carbonate  by  heat  and  treating  with  hydrochloric 
acid  or  silver  carbonate  by  heat  and  treating  with  hydro- 
chloric acid,  followed  by  nitric  acid;  by  acting  on  sub- 
chloride  with  nitric  acid  or  an  alkaline  hypochlorite ;  by  at- 
tacking almost  any  soluble  salt  of  silver  with  ferrous,  man- 
ganous,  or  chromous  oxide,  followed  by  hydrochloric  acid ; 
by  treating  a  soluble  salt  or  almost  any  silver  solution  with 
potash  or  soda  and  almost  any  reducing  agent — cane  sugar, 
milk  sugar,  glucose,  dextrine,  aldehyde,  alcohol,  etc. — and 
supersaturating  it  with  hydrochloric  acid.  So,  also,  almost 
any  salt  of  silver  exposed  to  light,  treated  with  hydrochloric 
acid  and  then  with  strong  nitric  acid  yields  it.  Since  these 
substances  have  been  seen  hitherto  only  in  the  impure  form 
in  which  they  are  produced  by  the  continued  action  of 

292 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

light  on  the  normal  salts,  Lea  proposed  to  call  them  photo- 
salts;  as  photochloride,  photobromide,  and  photoiodide. 

In  the  second  part  of  his  paper  he  proved  that  the 
strongly  colored  photosalts,  obtained  independently  of  any 
action  of  light,  are  identical,  first,  with  the  product  ob- 
tained by  the  continued  action  of  light  on  these  halides, 
and,  second,  with  the  substance  of  the  latent  image  itself. 
If  silver  chloride  precipitated  with  excess  of  hydrochloric 
acid  be  exposed  to  light,  we  get  a  deep,  purple-black  sub- 
stance which,  when  boiled  with  dilute  nitric  acid,  gives 
up  a  little  silver  and  becomes  a  little  lighter,  changing  to  a 
dull  purple,  resembling  closely  some  of  the  forms  of  photo- 
chloride  already  described,  chiefly  those  produced  by  the 
action  of  sodium  hypochlorite,  or  of  ferric  chloride  on 
metallic  silver.  When  silver  oxalate  is  covered  with  water 
and  exposed  to  sunshine  for  two  days,  being  frequently 
agitated,  it  changes  to  a  deep  brownish  black,  becoming 
a  little  lighter  by  treatment  with  hydrochloric  acid.  When 
washed  and  boiled  with  nitric  acid  it  acquires  a  fine  deep 
copper  red  color.  A  sample  especially  prepared  in  this  way 
which  had  a  fine  lilac  purple  color  was  found  to  contain 
one  half  of  1  per  cent,  of  subchloride.  The  red  chloride 
thus  obtained  by  the  action  of  light  on  silver  oxalate  not 
only  resembles  closely  the  red  chloride  obtained  by  means 
exclusively  chemical,  but  shows  the  same  behavior  to  re- 
agents. In  considering  the  question  of  the  latent  image 
the  author  called  attention  to  the  remarkable  fact  that  a 
dilute  solution  of  sodium  hypophosphite  if  poured  over  a 
mass  of  silver  chloride,  bromide,  or  iodide  had  the  property 
of  bringing  those  substances  into  the  condition  in  which 
they  exist  in  the  latent  image.  Applied  in  strong  solution 
with  the  aid  of  heat  it  produced  brown  photochloride,  pho- 
tobromide, or  photoiodide  of  silver.  Experimental  evidence 
is  given  to  show,  first,  that  in  the  entire  absence  of  light 
sodium  hypophosphite  is  able  to  affect  a  sensitive  film  of 
silver  halide  exactly  in  the  same  way  as  does  light,  produc- 

293 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

ing  a  result  equivalent  to  a  latent  image  formed  by  light 
and  capable  of  development  in  the  same  way  as  an  actual 
impression  of  light;  second,  that  these  two  effects,  the  im- 
pression produced  by  hypophosphite  and  that  by  light, 
comport  themselves  to  reagents  exactly  in  the  same  way, 
and  seem  in  every  way  identical ;  and,  third,  that  the  image 
produced  by  hypophosphite  on  silver  chloride  always  gives 
rise  to  a  positive  development,  but  on  silver  bromide  may 
give  rise  either  to  a  direct  or  to  a  reverse  image,  both  of 
these  effects  corresponding  exactly  with  those  of  light.  But 
more  than  this.  Sodium  hypophosphite  may  be  made  to 
reverse  the  image  produced  by  light  on  silver  bromide, 
and  conversely,  light  may  be  made  to  reverse  the  action  of 
hypophosphite.  It  would  seem,  therefore,  that  the  question 
of  the  identity  of  the  photosalts  with  the  products  of  light 
on  the  silver  halides  may,  perhaps,  with  some  confidence 
be  allowed  to  rest  on  the  cumulative  proofs  here  offered. 

As  long  ago  as  1878  Lea  had  shown  that  as  the  black 
substance  produced  by  the  action  of  light  upon  silver 
chloride  became  white  on  treating  with  aqua  regia,  it  evi- 
dently contained  less  chlorine  than  the  chloride,  and  so 
must  be  either  a  subchloride  or  an  oxj^chloride.  He  suc- 
ceeded in  demonstrating  it  to  be  a  compound  of  a  normal 
salt  with  a  sub-salt. 

In  further  proof  of  the  existence  of  hemi-compounds, 
Lea,  in  1892,  obtained  a  double  salt  of  hemisulphate,  and 
normal  sulphate  containing  one  molecule  of  each. 

Perhaps  the  most  remarkable  discovery  made  by  Lea 
was  that  of  allotropic  silver.  In  1886  he  had  taken  up  the 
study  of  the  reduction  of  silver  in  connection  with  that 
of  the  photosalts.  At  first  the  results  were  most  enigmati- 
cal, but  eventually  stable  products,  capable  of  a  fair  amount 
of  purification,  were  obtained.  The  reaction  employed  was 
the  reduction  of  silver  citrate  by  ferrous  citrate.  Even  the 
earlier  and  less  pure  forms  of  allotropic  silver  thus  pre- 
pared were  exceedingly  beautiful ;  the  purer  are  hardly  sur- 

294 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

passed  in  this  respect  by  any  known  chemical  products. 
The  forms  obtained  he  classified  as:  A,  soluble,  deep  red 
in  solution,  mat-lilac,  blue,  or  green  while  moist,  brilliant 
green,  metallic  when  dry;  B,  insoluble,  derived  from  A, 
dark  reddish  brown  while  moist,  when  dry  exactly  resemb- 
ling metallic  gold  in  burnished  lumps.  Of  this  form  there 
is  a  variety  which  is  copper-colored.  The  C  form  is  in- 
soluble in  water  and  appears  to  have  no  corresponding 
soluble  form. 

Lea  subsequently  pointed  out  that  the  three  forms  of 
allotropic  silver  are  not  to  be  understood  as  the  only  forms 
which  exist,  but  only  as  the  most  marked. 

In  April,  1891,  he  wrote  "That  silver  may  exist  in  three 
forms:  First,  allotropic  silver,  which  is  protean  in  its 
nature;  may  be  soluble  or  insoluble  in  water,  may  be  yel- 
low, red,  blue,  or  green,  or  may  have  almost  any  color,  but 
in  all  its  soluble  varieties  always  exhibits  plasticity — that 
is,  if  brushed  in  a  pasty  state  upon  a  smooth  surface  its 
particles  dry  in  optical  contact  and  with  a  brilliant  metallic 
luster;  it  is  chemically  active;  second,  the  intermediate 
form,  which  may  be  yellow  or  green,  always  shows  metallic 
luster,  but  is  never  plastic,  and  is  almost  as  indifferent 
chemically  as  white  silver ;  third,  ordinary  silver/*  Further 
he  pointed  out  "that  allotropic  silver  can  always  be  con- 
verted either  into  the  intermediate  form  or  directly  into 
ordinary  silver;  that  the  intermediate  forms  can  always 
be  converted  into  ordinary  silver,  but  that  these  processes 
can  never  be  reversed ;  so  that  to  pass  from  ordinary  silver 
to  allotropic  it  must  first  be  rendered  atomic  by  combina- 
tion, and  then  be  brought  back  to  the  metallic  form  under 
conditions  which  check  the  atoms  in  uniting;  that  allo- 
tropic silver  is  affected  by  all  forms  of  energy,  and  that 
this  effect  is  always  in  one  direction,  namely,  toward  con- 
densation ;  that  the  silver  halides  are  similarly  affected  by 
the  same  agencies;  that  a  remarkable  parallelism  is  notice- 
able between  the  two  actions,  especially  if  we  take  into 

295 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

account  the  fact  that  in  the  halides  the  influence  of  energy 
is  to  some  extent  restrained  by  the  strong  affinity  which 
the  halogens  show  for  atomic  silver.  There  is  therefore 
reasonable  ground  to  suppose  that  the  silver  halides  may 
exist  in  the  allotropic  form." 

In  the  course  of  his  investigations  Lea  became  greatly 
interested  in  the  relations  of  energy  to  the  chemical  changes 
in  matter.  Since  it  is  well  known  that  when  a  substance 
is  capable  of  existing  in  two  allotropic  forms  and  being 
converted  from  one  into  the  other  by  pressure,  the  body 
resulting  from  pressure  is  always  the  more  dense  of  the 
two,  is  less  active  chemically,  and  is  a  polymer  of  the  first, 
it  should  follow  that  allotropic  silver,  which  is  converted 
into  normal  silver  by  the  simple  pressure  of  the  finger, 
should  be  less  dense  than  it  and  should  have  a  greater 
chemical  activity.  This  Lea  demonstrated  to  be  the  fact. 
In  the  case  of  the  three  forms  of  silver — the  allotropic,  the 
intermediate,  and  the  ordinary  form — he  showed  as  early 
as  1891  that  while  the  first  form  can  be  converted  into 
the  second  and  third  in  several  ways  and  with  the  utmost 
facility,  and  that  the  second  can  also  be  converted  into  the 
third,  these  transformations  can  by  no  possibility  be  re- 
versed. To  convert  ordinary  into  allotropic  silver  we  must 
as  a  first  step  dissolve  it  in  an  acid — that  is,  convert  it 
from  a  polymerized  into  an  atomic  form — since  only  from 
this  atomic  form  can  allotropic  silver  be  obtained.  Hence 
he  suggests  that  the  three  forms  of  silver  may  be  considered 
as  atomic,  molecular  and  polymerized.  Special  experiments 
made  upon  the  silver  halides  showed  that  these  compounds, 
though  substances  of  very  great  stability,  have  their  equi- 
librium so  balanced  as  to  respond  to  the  slightest  influence, 
not  merely  of  light,  but  of  any  form  of  energy;  not  re- 
ceiving a  momentary  but  a  permanent  impression,  which, 
though  so  slight  as  to  be  invisible,  still  greatly  increases  the 
tendency  of  the  molecule  to  fall  in  pieces  under  the  action 
of  a  reducing  agent.  It  is  not  light  only,  therefore,  that  is 

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CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

capable  of  producing  an  invisible  image.  The  power  be- 
longs alike  to  all  forms  of  energy.  In  a  paper  read  before 
the  National  Academy  in  April,  1892,  he  showed  that  not 
only  heat,  light,  electricity,  and  chemism  are  capable  of 
disrupting  the  molecule,  but  that  mechanical  force  also  is 
able  to  do  this.  Silver  chloride  was  enclosed  in  platinum 
foil  and  exposed  to  a  pressure  of  about  one  hundred  thou- 
sand pounds  to  the  square  inch,  maintained  for  twenty- 
four  hours.  The  chloride  was  completely  blackened  except 
at  its  edges,  where,  of  course,  the  pressure  was  less.  Silver 
bromide  gave  the  same  result.  Silver  iodide  was  not  black- 
ened by  light ;  but  to  his  great  surprise,  it  darkened  under 
pressure  to  the  same  extent  as  the  others.  Even  shearing 
stress  obtained  by  simple  trituration  in  a  porcelain  mortar 
produced  a  darkening  of  silver  chloride — a  true  silver  pho- 
tochloride.  These  observations  prove  the  existence  of  a  per- 
fect uniformity  in  the  action  of  all  kinds  of  energy  on  the 
silver  halides.  The  balance  of  the  molecule  is  at  once  af- 
fected by  the  influence  of  any  form  of  energy.  A  slight 
application  produces  an  effect  which,  though  invisible  to  the 
eye,  is  instantly  made  evident  by  the  application  of  a  re- 
ducing agent.  The  bonds  which  unite  the  atoms  have 
evidently  been  loosened  in  some  way,  so  that  these  mole- 
cules break  up  more  easily  than  those  to  which  energy  has 
not  been  applied.  Hence,  if  the  substance  be  submitted 
to  the  action  of  light,  heat,  or  electricity,  or  if  lines  are 
drawn  across  it  with  a  glass  rod  or  with  sulphuric  acid,  a 
reducing  agent  blackens  the  parts  so  treated  before  it 
affects  the  parts  not  so  treated.  Obviously  the  phenomena 
of  the  latent  image  and  of  its  development  are  not  espe- 
cially connected  with  light,  but  belong  to  other  forms  of 
energy  as  well.  It  follows,  therefore,  that  every  form  of 
energy  is  capable,  not  only  of  producing  an  invisible  image 
— that  is,  of  loosening  the  bonds  which  unite  the  atoms — 
but  also,  if  applied  more  strongly,  of  totally  disrupting  the 
molecule.  Mechanical  force,  even,  is  therefore  competent 

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CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

without  the  aid  of  heat  to  break  up  a  molecule  which  owes 
its  existence  to  an  exothermic  reaction.  Obviously  this 
phenomenon  has  nothing  in  common  with  decomposition 
produced  by  mechanical  force  in  silver  or  mercury  ful- 
minate and  similar  explosives.  Such  substances  are  all 
formed  by  endothermic  reactions,  and  their  decompositions 
are  exothermic.  But  silver  halides  are  formed  by  exother- 
mic reactions,  and  consequently  their  decompositions  are 
endothermic  and  require  the  energy  which  was  set  free 
in  their  formation  to  be  returned  to  effect  their  decomposi- 
tion. The  experiments  now  described  show  that  mechanical 
force  may  be  made  to  supply  this  energy,  and  so  play  the 
part  of  light,  electricity,  or  heat  without  previous  con- 
version into  any  of  these  forms. 

In  three  papers  on  ^Endothermic  Reactions  Effected  by 
Mechanical  Force,"  published  in  1893,  Lea  generalized  his 
proposition  and  sought  to  determine  whether  mechanical 
force  would  not  be  capable  of  bringing  about  analogous 
chemical  changes  in  other  compounds.  This  he  showed  was 
the  case. 

From  his  results  he  found  first,  a  new  classification  of 
the  elements  based  on  more  correct  principles  than  those 
previously  made  use  of,  and,  second,  a  proof  that  the  color 
or  non-color  of  an  element  is  a  function  of  its  atomic 
weight.  Considering  the  elements  numerically,  it  appears 
(1)  that  those  whose  atomic  weights  are  less  than  47  have 
colorless  ions  only;  (2)  that  colored  ions  suddenly  com- 
mence with  titanium  (48)  and  form  an  unbroken  series  of 
eight  elements  up  to  copper  (63.4) ;  (3)  that  a  series  of 
nine  metals  follow  having  colorless  ions  only,  beginning 
with  zinc  (64.9)  and  ending  with  yttrium  (92.5)  ;  (4)  that 
next  come  six  metals  with  colored  ions  extending  from 
columbium  (94)  to  silver  (107.7) ;  (5)  that  these  are  fol- 
lowed by  nine  metals  having  colorless  ions,  from  cadmium 
(111.6)  to  lanthanum  (139)  ;  (6)  that  next  come  ten 
metals  having  colored  ions,  from  cerium  (142)  to  gold 

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CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

(196.2) ;  (7)  that  the  six  remaining  metals  are  alternately 
colorless  and  colored,  mercury  (199.8)  being  colorless,  thal- 
lium (203.6)  colored,  lead  (206.4)  colorless,  bismuth  (210) 
colored.  From  the  conception  of  the  all-important  nature  of 
the  color  of  the  atom,  while  that  of  the  element  is  of  little 
significance,  the  author  drew  several  interesting  conclu- 
sions: First,  that  the  well-known  Periodic  law  must  be 
rejected  as  based  on  erroneous  principles ;  and,  second,  that 
no  element  having  ions  colored  at  all  valencies  can  belong 
to  the  same  natural  group  with  elements  having  colorless 
ions  only.  This  law,  which  he  calls  the  Law  of  Color,  is 
rigorous  and  fundamental ;  rigorous  because  it  admits  of  no 
exception;  fundamental,  because  it  divides  elements  into 
two  chief  divisions,  with  strongly  marked  differences. 

The  paper  concludes  with  a  discussion  of  the  period- 
icity of  the  law  of  color,  illustrated  by  a  plate,  commencing 
with  hydrogen  and  showing  a  double  series  of  eighteen  ele- 
ments, with  increasing  atomic  weights,  all  having  colorless 
ions  only.  Approaching  the  first  of  the  colored  groups — 
i.  e.,  the  iron  group — we  find  the  transitional  elements  ti- 
tanium and  vanadium,  which  have  both  colorless  and 
colored  ions,  the  former  uniting  them  to  the  preceding  and 
the  latter  to  the  following  series.  This  alteration  is  con- 
tinued through  the  list  of  elements,  showing  that  with 
atomic  weights  from  1  to  47,  from  65  to  90,  and  from  11.2 
to  139  their  atoms  are  colorless;  from  52  to  59,  from  103  to 
106,  from  145  to  149,  and  from  192  to  196  the  atoms  are 
always  colored.  Elements  whose  place  in  the  numerical 
series  falls  between  these  periods  have  both  colored  and 
colorless  atoms.  The  six  remaining  periods  have  both 
colorless  and  colored  atoms  alternately.  Evidently  the  con- 
clusion drawn  by  the  author  from  these  facts,  "that  the 
color  of  the  elementary  atoms  is  to  a  large  extent  a  func- 
tion of  their  atomic  weights, ' '  is  fully  justified. 

In  his  second  paper  he  considers  more  in  detail  certain 
consequences  of  his  general  theory.  The  law  of  the  inter- 

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CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

action  of  ions  he  states  thus:  "If  a  colored  substance  be 
formed  by  the  union  of  a  colorless  kation  with  a  colorless 
anion,  the  color  belongs  to  the  molecule  only.  The  colorless 
ions  have  so  modified  each  other's  vibration  periods  that 
selective  absorption  is  exercised.  As  soon  therefore  as  the 
molecule  is  divided  into  ions  the  color  must  disappear ;  con- 
sequently if  we  find  a  solvent,  which,  like  water,  is  capable 
of  separating  the  ions,  the  resulting  solution  when  dilute 
must  be  colorless,  no  matter  how  intense  the  color  of  the 
compound. "  The  truth  of  this  law  he  experimentally 
tested,  and  found  the  results  confirmatory  without  excep- 
tion. With  regard  to  the  combination  of  ions,  he  states  as 
follows:  A,  two  or  more  similar  colorless  ions  may  unite 
to  form  a  colored  elementary  molecule ;  B,  two  or  more  sim- 
ilar ions,  colored,  may  unite  to  form  a  colorless  (or  white) 
molecule  or  polymer;  C,  two  or  more  similar  colored  ions 
may  unite  to  form  a  molecule  of  a  wholly  different  color; 
D,  two  or  more  dissimilar  colorless  ions  may  unite  to  form 
a  colored  molecule.  No  ion,  and  therefore  no  atom,  is 
black,  but  is  always  transparent  to  some  portion  or  portions 
of  the  visible  rays;  atoms  and  ions  differing  absolutely  in 
this  respect  from  molecules.  In  considering  the  theory 
of  the  action  of  acid  indicators  he  maintains  that  dissocia- 
tion has  no  essential  connection  with  their  reactions.  The 
fact  simply  is  that  by  combining  with  alkalies  these  sub- 
stances have  their  color  much  intensified  or  change  it  alto- 
gether. From  the  results  of  his  color  investigations  Lea 
drew  the  following  general  conclusions:  (1)  When  highly 
colored  inorganic  substances  are  composed  of  colorless 
ions,  then  if  these  substances  can  be  brought  into  solution 
as  electrolytes,  the  color  wholly  disappears.  (2)  The  union 
of  ions,  colored  and  colorless,  gives  rise  to  the  most  sur- 
prising changes  of  color.  (3)  The  change  of  color  of  an 
acid  indicator  placed  in  contact  with  an  alkali  in  no  way 
depends  upon  dissociation.  (4)  Selective  absorption  of  the 
visual  rays  by  an  element  can  never  constitute  a  basis  for 

300 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

classification,  but  the  relation  of  ions  to  the  visual  rays 
leads  to  a  classification  which  is  in  absolute  harmony  with 
the  chemical  characteristics  of  the  elements.  (5)  While 
there  is  good  reason  for  believing  that  in  solution  the  ions 
are  separated  so  as  no  longer  to  affect  each  other's  vibra- 
tions, it  is  also  certain  that  they  remain  within  each  other 's 
range  of  influence,  so  that  they  cannot  be  considered  as 
free. 

Lea  was  universally  regarded  as  the  pioneer  investiga- 
tor in  the  more  scientific  realms  of  art,  and  his  studies  on 
such  subjects  as  the  preparation  of  collodio-bromide  and 
emulsions,  on  the  chemistry  of  developing  agents,  on  the 
influence  of  color  on  the  reduction  by  light  of  silver  salts, 
especially  the  halides,  and  particularly  his  work  on  the 
remarkable  tendency  of  these  substances  to  form  colored 
compounds  practically  of  all  possible  hues,  and  so  fore- 
shadowing the  success  of  heliochromy  in  a  not  remote  future 
— these  studies  must  ever  be  considered  the  most  valuable 
contributions  to  the  science  of  photography  made  during 
the  last  quarter  of  a  century  in  which  he  lived. 

Among  the  teachers  of  chemistry  as  well  as  among  the 
investigators,  a  high  place  must  be  ascribed  to  Josiah  Par- 
sons Cooke  (1827-1894)  of  Harvard.  He  graduated  from 
college  in  1848,  and  in  1850  became  Erving  Professor  of 
Mineralogy  and  Chemistry,  a  position  which  he  held  for  the 
remainder  of  his  life. 

Cooke 's  equipment  for  the  duties  of  his  new  place  was 
almost  entirely  the  result  of  his  own  exertions.  A  course 
of  lectures  by  the  elder  Silliman  first  aroused  his  enthusi- 
asm for  chemistry,  and  led  him  in  early  boyhood  to  fit  up 
a  laboratory  in  his  father's  house,  where  he  attacked  the 
science  by  experiment  with  such  good  results  that  even 
when  he  came  to  college  he  had  a  working  knowledge  of 

301 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

the  subject.  At  Cambridge  he  continued  these  studies  es- 
sentially alone,  as  the  chemical  teaching  of  the  college 
during  his  four  years  of  residence  was  confined  to  five  or 
six  rather  disjointed  and  fragmentary  lectures.  Immedi- 
ately after  appointment  to  his  professorship  he  supple- 
mented these  meager  preparations  by  obtaining  leave  of 
absence  for  eight  months,  which  were  spent  in  Europe  buy- 
ing apparatus  and  material  and  attending  lectures  by  Reg- 
nault  and  Dumas.  These  formed  the  only  instruction  in 
chemistry  he  had  received  which  could  even  claim  to  be 
systematic;  yet  with  this  slender  outfit,  aided  by  barely  a 
year  and  a  half  of  experience  as  a  teacher,  in  1851,  at  the 
age  of  24,  he  found  himself  confronted  with  problems  which 
would  have  taxed  the  abilities  of  an  old,  experienced  and 
fully  educated  professor.  Chemical  teaching  in  Harvard 
College  had  become  extinct  and  must  be  re-established. 
The  college  was  wedded  to  methods  of  teaching,  excellent 
for  classics  and  mathematics,  but  entirely  unfit  for  a  sub- 
ject like  chemistry.  These  must  be  replaced  by  better 
methods,  many  of  which  were  still  to  be  invented.  Finally 
he  was  called  upon  to  take  a  prominent  share  in  the  great 
battle  to  introduce  science  into  the  college  course  on  an 
equality  with  the  humanities. 

The  zeal  with  which  he  threw  himself  into  these  tasks 
led  to  substantial  results  much  more  quickly  than  could 
have  been  expected.  After  only  seven  years  he  had  suc- 
ceeded in  introducing  required  courses  of  chemistry  into 
the  sophomore  and  junior  years.  These,  however,  were 
only  lecture  and  text-book  courses;  so  that  really  a  much 
more  important  advance  consisted  in  the  fact  that  he  had 
also  induced  the  faculty  of  the  college  to  accept  an  elective 

302 


JOSIAH  PARSONS  COOKE 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

course  in  qualitative  analysis,  to  be  taught  in  the  labora- 
tory by  the  experimental  method.  It  is  noteworthy  that 
from  the  very  beginning  of  his  career,  Cooke  was  an  ardent 
adherent  of  the  laboratory  method  of  teaching  chemistry  in- 
vented not  many  years  earlier  by  Liebig.  This  seems  at 
first  sight  a  strange  breadth  of  view  in  a  self-taught  chem- 
ist, but,  as  he  was  fond  of  saying,  the  fact  that  he  had 
taught  himself  chemistry  by  his  own  experiments  showed 
him  the  value  of  this  method  for  other  students.  But  this 
was  not  all ;  a  large  building,  Boylston  Hall,  had  been  built 
for  the  use  of  chemistry  and  comparative  anatomy  with 
money  a  large  part  of  which  had  been  raised  by  his  exer- 
tions. 

After  this  brilliant  beginning  the  progress  was  continu- 
ous, until  at  the  time  of  his  death  there  were  sixteen 
courses  in  chemistry  and  mineralogy,  chosen  by  three  hun- 
dred and  fifteen  students,  and  taught  by  three  professors, 
three  instructors  and  eight  assistants.  Boylston  Hall  was 
devoted  exclusively  to  chemistry,  and  the  Mineralogical 
Department  was  established  in  a  section  of  the  University 
Museum,  also  built  through  his  exertions,  where  was  ex- 
hibited the  rich  mineralogical  collection  created  by  him. 

Cooke 's  scientific  activity  began  even  during  his  first 
struggles  for  the  recognition  of  chemistry  by  the  college 
(1854).  In  that  year  he  published  his  first  large  experi- 
mental research,  "On  the  Alloys  of  Zinc  and  Antimony." 
Some  shorter  papers  on  spectroscopic,  crystallographic,  and 
analytical  subjects  appeared.  In  1866  he  made  the  striking 
discovery  of  "danalite"  and  other  new  minerals  in  Rock- 
port.  He  then  made  an  extended  research,  both  analytical 
and  crystallographic,  on  the  vermiculites  and  chlorites. 

303 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

In  1873  he  published  the  first  of  his  most  important 
series  of  researches,  those  on  atomic  weights,  beginning  with 
the  vexed  question  in  regard  to  the  atomic  weight  of  anti- 
mony. The  result  was  a  series  of  papers  in  which  he  es- 
tablished the  atomic  weight  of  that  metal  to  the  whole 
satisfaction  of  the  entire  chemical  world.  In  connection 
with  this  work  he  made  a  careful  study  of  some  of  the 
compounds  of  antimony  with  the  halogens,  in  which,  by 
the  use  of  crystallographic  methods,  he  succeeded  in  giving 
a  probable  explanation  of  the  dimorphism  of  antimonious 
iodide. 

The  last  of  these  researches  was  a  careful  redeterm- 
ination  of  the  relation  between  the  atomic  weights  of  oxy- 
gen and  hydrogen.  The  experimental  difficulties  were  even 
greater  than  those  encountered  in  his  work  with  antimony, 
but  one  by  one  they  were  overcome,  and  he  was  able  to 
publish  sixteen  successive  determinations  showing  a  won- 
derfully close  agreement,  but,  as  Lord  Rayleigh  almost  im- 
mediately pointed  out,  these  results  contained  one  of  his 
old  enemies — a  constant  error — due  to  the  contraction  of 
the  glass  globes  when  exhausted  in  order  to  weigh  them 
empty.  Cooke's  last  paper  contained  an  ingenious  method 
for  avoiding  this  error  by  determining  the  tare  of  the 
globes  without  exhausting  them. 

In  addition  to  the  forty-one  papers  on  his  researches,  he 
published  thirty- two  on  other  subjects,  generally  relating 
to  chemistry,  and  eight  books,  ranging  from  such  widely 
used  text-books  as  the  "Chemical  Philosophy"  and  "New 
Chemistry"  to  works  on  the  relation  of  religion  and 
science,  and  an  interesting  volume  of  essays. 

He  enriched  our  stock  of  lecture  apparatus  with  many 

304 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

excellent  contrivances,  notably  his  arrangement  for  the 
projection  of  spectra,  his  form  of  the  lecture-table  eudio- 
meter, and  the  vertical  lantern. 

His  character  is  summed  up  in  the  words  of  his  colleague, 
Professor  H.  B.  Hill.  "As  an  investigator,  Cooke  was 
clear  in  thought,  persevering  amid  difficulties,  fertile  in  ex- 
pedients, impatient  of  dogma,  and  to  the  end  he  retained 
the  keen  curiosity  and  enthusiasm  of  his  earlier  days." 

His  books  were:  1857,  Chemical  Problems  and  Reac- 
tions; 1860,  Elements  of  Chemical  Physics;  1864,  Religion 
and  Chemistry,  or  Proofs  of  God's  Plan  in  the  Atmosphere 
and  Its  Elements ;  1868,  Principles  of  Chemical  Philosophy ; 
1874,  The  New  Chemistry;  1881,  Scientific  Culture  and 
Other  Essays ;  1888,  The  Credentials  of  Science  the  War- 
rant of  Faith;  1891,  Laboratory  Practice. 

Papers  on  his  original  investigation  are :  1852,  Descrip- 
tion of  a  Crystal  of  Rhombic  Arsenic;  1852,  Octahedral 
Crystals  of  Arsenic;  1854,  The  Relation  between  the  Ato- 
mic Weights;  1854,  On  Two  New  Crystalline  Compounds 
of  Zinc  and  Antimony;  1854,  On  a  New  Filtering  Ap- 
paratus; 1855,  On  the  Law  of  Definite  Proportions  in  the 
Compounds  of  Zinc  and  Antimony ;  1860,  Crystalline  Form 
Not  Necessarily  an  Indication  of  Definite  Chemical  Com- 
position; 1861,  On  the  Dimorphism  of  Arsenic,  Antimony 
and  Zinc ;  On  the  Spectroscope ;  On  the  Cleavage  of  Galena ; 
1863,  An  Improved  Spectroscope;  1863,  Crystallographic 
Examination  of  Childrenite;  1864,  Crystallographic  Ex- 
amination of  the  Acid  Tartrates  of  Caesia  and  Rubidia; 
1865,  On  a  Spectroscope  with  Many  Prisms;  1865,  On  the 
Projection  of  the  Spectra  of  the  Metals;  1866,  On  the 
Aqueous  Lines  of  the  Solar  Spectrum;  1866,  Separation 

305 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

of  Iron  and  Alumina ;  1866,  Analysis  of  Danalite  of  Rock- 
port;  1867,  On  Cryophyllite ;  1867,  On  Certain  Lecture  Ex- 
periments; 1867,  Crystallographic  Examination  of  Some 
American  Chlorites;  1867,  A  Method  of  Determining  the 
Protoxide  of  Iron  in  Silicates  not  Soluble  in  the  Ordinary 
Mineral  Acids;  1869,  Atomic  Ratio;  1874,  The  Vermicu- 
lites;  1875,  Melanosiderite ;  1875,  On  Two  Varieties  of 
Vermiculites ;  1876,  On  a  New  Mode  of  Manipulating  Hy- 
dric  Sulphide;  1876,  On  the  Process  of  Reverse  Filtering; 
1877,  Revision  of  the  Atomic  Weights  of  Antimony;  1877, 
Re-examination  of  Some  of  the  Haloid  Compounds  of  Anti- 
mony; 1879,  The  Atomic  Weight  of  Antimony;  1880,  On 
the  Oxidation  of  Hydrochloric  Acid  Solutions  of  Anti- 
mony in  the  Atmosphere;  1881,  On  the  Solubility  of  Chlo- 
ride of  Silver  in  Water;  1881,  Additional  Experiments  on 
the  Atomic  Weight  of  Antimony ;  1881,  The  Boiling  Point 
of  Iodide  of  Antimony  and  a  New  Form  of  Air  Ther- 
mometer; 1883,  A  Simple  Method  for  Correcting  the 
Weight  of  a  Body  for  the  Buoyancy  of  the  Atmosphere 
When  the  Volume  is  Unknown;  1883,  Possible  Variability 
of  the  Law  of  Definite  Proportions;  1887,  The  Relative 
Values  of  the  Atomic  Weights  of  Oxygen  and  Hydrogen; 
1888,  Additional  Note  on  the  Relative  Values  of  the  Ato- 
mic Weights  of  Oxygen  and  Hydrogen;  1889,  On  a  New 
Method  of  Determining  Gas  Densities. 

[C.  L.  Jackson  in  Biographical  Memoirs,  4,  175,  of  the 
National  Academy  of  Sciences.] 

In  searching  through  the  early  literature  pertaining 
to  the  classification  of  the  elements,  there  was  discovered 
the  following  contribution  of  Cooke,  which  may  well  claim 
attention.  It  marks  an  attempt  to  solve  the  problem 

306 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

of  relationship  of  elements  and  their  dependent  prop- 
erties. It  is,  perhaps,  the  first  effort  in  this  direc- 
tion, made  in  our  country,  and  for  that  reason  is 
worthy  of  reproduction.  It  is  entitled  "The  Numerical 
Relation  between  the  Atomic  Weights,  with  some  Thoughts 
on  the  Classification  of  the  Chemical  Elements." 

Numerical  relations  between  the  atomic  weights  of  the 
chemical  elements  have  been  very  frequently  noticed  by 
chemists.  One  of  the  fullest  of  these  relations  was  that 
given  by  M.  Dumas  of  Paris,  before  the  British  Associa- 
tion for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  at  the  meeting  of 
1851.  This  distinguished  chemist  at  that  time  pointed  out 
the  fact,  that  many  of  the  elements  might  be  grouped  in 
triads,  in  which  the  atomic  weight  of  Bromine  is  the  mean 
between  those  of  Chlorine  and  Iodine ;  that  of  Selenium 
is  the  mean  between  those  of  Sulphur  and  Tellurium,  and 
that  of  Sodium,  the  mean  between  those  of  Lithium  and 
Potassium.  M.  Dumas  also  spoke  of  the  remarkable  analo- 
gies between  the  properties  of  the  members  of  these  triads, 
comparing  them  with  similar  analogies  observed  in  Organic 
Chemistry,  and  drew,  as  is  well  known,  from  these  facts 
arguments  to  support  the  hypothesis  of  the  compound  na- 
ture of  many  of  the  now  received  elements.  Similar  views 
to  those  of  Dumas  have  been  advanced  by  other  chemists. 

The  doctrine  of  triads  is,  however,  as  I  hope  to  be  able 
to  show  in  the  present  memoir,  a  partial  view  of  this  sub- 
ject, since  these  triads  are  only  parts  of  series  similar  in 
all  respects  to  the  series  of  homologues  of  Organic  Chemis- 
try, in  which  the  differences  between  the  atomic  weights 
of  the  members  is  a  multiple  of  some  whole  number.  All 
the  elements  may  be  classified  into  six  series,  in  each  of 
which  this  number  is  different,  and  may  be  said  to  charac- 
terize its  series.  In  the  first  it  is  nine,  in  the  second  eight, 
in  the  third  six,  in  the  fourth  five,  in  the  fifth  four,  and 

307 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

in  the  last  three.  The  discovery  of  this  simple  numerical 
relation,  which  includes  all  others  that  have  ever  been 
noticed  was  the  result  of  a  classification  of  the  chemical 
elements  made  for  the  purpose  of  exhibiting  their  analogies 
in  the  lecture-room.  A  short  notice  of  this  classification 
will,  therefore,  make  a  natural  introduction  to  the  sub- 
ject. 

Every  teacher  of  Chemistry  must  have  felt  the  want  of 
some  system  of  classification  like  those  which  so  greatly 
facilitate  the  acquisition  of  the  natural-history  sciences. 
In  most  elementary  text-books  on  Chemistry,  the  elements 
are  grouped  together  with  little  regard  to  their  analogies. 
Oxygen,  Hydrogen,  and  Nitrogen  are  usually  placed  first, 
and  therefore  together,  although  there  are  hardly  to  be 
found  three  elements  more  dissimilar:  again,  Phosphorus 
and  Sulphur,  which  are  not  chemically  allied,  are  frequent- 
ly placed  consecutively,  while  Arsenic,  Antimony,  and  Bis- 
muth, in  spite  of  their  close  analogies  with  Phosphorus,  are 
described  in  a  different  part  of  the  book.  This  confusion, 
which  arises  in  part  from  retaining  the  artificial  classifica- 
tion of  the  elements  into  metals  and  metalloids,  is  a  source 
of  great  difficulty  to  the  learner,  since  it  obliges  him  to 
retain  in  his  memory  a  large  number  of  apparently  discon- 
nected facts.  In  order  to  meet  this  difficulty,  a  classifica- 
tion of  the  elements  into  six  groups,  differing  but  slightly 
from  that  given  in  the  table  accompanying  this  memoir, 
was  made.  The  object  of  the  classification  was  simply  to 
facilitate  the  acquisition  of  Chemistry,  by  bringing  to- 
gether such  elements  as  were  allied  in  their  chemical  rela- 
tions considered  collectively.  As  the  classification  has  been 
in  use  for  some  time  in  the  courses  of  lectures  on  Chemistry 
given  in  Harvard  University,  I  have  had  an  opportunity 
for  observing  its  value  in  teaching,  and  cannot  but  feel  that 
the  object  for  which  it  was  made  has  been  in  a  great  meas- 
ure attained.  The  series  which  is  headed  The  Six  Series 
will  illustrate  the  advantage  gained  from  the  classification 

308 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

in  the  course  of  lectures,  the  elements  which  compose  it 
being  among  those  specially  dwelt  upon  in  lectures  to  medi- 
cal students,  and,  generally,  very  widely  separated  in  a 
text-book  on  the  science.  As  Chemistry  is  usually  taught, 
the  properties  of  the  members  of  this  series,  Nitrogen, 
Phosphorus,  Arsenic,  and  Antimony,  as  well  as  the  compo- 
sition and  properties  of  their  compounds,  make  up  a  large 
body  of  isolated  facts,  which,  though  without  any  assistance 
for  his  memory,  the  student  is  expected  to  retain.  Cer- 
tainly it  cannot  be  wondered  at,  that  he  finds  this  a  difficult 
task.  The  difficulty  can,  however,  be  in  a  great  measure 
removed,  if,  after  he  has  been  taught  that  Nitrogen  forms 
two  important  acids  with  Oxygen,  N03  and  N05,  that  it 
unites  with  Sulphur  and  Chlorine  to  form  NS3  and  NC13, 
and  also  with  three  equivalents  of  Hydrogen  to  form  NH3, 
he  is  also  told,  that,  if  in  these  symbols  of  the  Nitrogen  com- 
pounds he  replaces  N  by  P,  As/  or  Sb,  he  will  obtain  sym- 
bols of  similar  compounds  of  Phosphorus,  Arsenic,  and 
Antimony;  for  he  thus  learns,  once  for  all,  the  mode  of 
combination  of  all  four  elements,  so  that  when  he  comes 
to  study  the  properties,  in  turn,  of  Phosphorus,  Arsenic, 
and  Antimony,  he  has  not  to  learn  with  each  an  entirely 
new  set  of  facts,  but  finds  the  same  repeated  with  only  a 
few  variations.  Moreover,  these  very  variations  he  will 
learn  to  predict,  if  he  is  shown  that  the  elements  are  ar- 
ranged in  the  series  according  to  the  strength  of  their 
electro-negative  properties,  or,  in  other  words,  that  their 
affinities  for  Oxygen,  Chlorine,  Sulphur,  etc.,  increase, 
while  those  for  Hydrogen  decrease,  as  we  descend.  He  will 
then  readily  see  why  it  is  that,  though  Nitrogen  forms  N03 
and  N05,  it  forms  only  NC13  and  NS3,  and  that  this  reason 
is  correct  he  will  be  pleased  to  find  confirmed  when  he 
learns  that  Phosphorus,  which  is  more  electro-positive  than 
Nitrogen,  and  has,  therefore,  a  stronger  affinity  both  for 
Chlorine  and  Sulphur,  forms  not  only  PC13  and  PS3,  but 
also  PC15  and  PS5.  Again,  he  will  not  be  surprised,  after 

309 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

seeing  the  affinity  of  the  elements  for  Hydrogen,  growing 
constantly  weaker  as  he  descends  in  the  series,  to  learn 
that  a  compound  of  Bismuth  and  Hydrogen  is  not  certainly 
known.  Should  he  inquire  why,  though  NH3  has  basic  prop- 
erties, PH3,  AsH3  and  SbH3,  have  not,  he  can  be  shown  that 
the  loss  of  basic  properties  in  passing  from  NH3  to  PH3 
corresponds  to  a  decrease  in  the  strength  of  the  affinity 
between  the  elements,  and  that  if  in  PH3,  SbH3,  or  AsH3, 
atoms  of  Methyle,  Ethyle,  or  other  organic  radicals  analo- 
gous to  Hydrogen,  are  substituted  for  the  Hydrogen  atoms, 
and  more  stable  compounds  thus  obtained,  strong  bases  are 
the  result.  The  other  series  would  afford  similar  illustra- 
tions, and,  from  my  own  experience,  I  am  confident  that 
no  teacher  who  will  once  use  the  classification  of  the  ele- 
ments here  proposed,  or  one  similar  to  it,  will  ever  think 
of  attempting  to  teach  Chemistry  without  its  aid. 

Classifications  of  the  elements,  more  or  less  complete, 
have  been  given  by  many  authors ;  but  the  fact  that  no  one 
has  been  generally  received,  is  sufficient  to  prove  that  they 
are  all  liable  to  objections,  and  would,  indeed,  also  seem 
to  show  that  a  strictly  scientific  classification  is  hardly  pos- 
sible in  the  present  state  of  the  science.  The  difficulty  with 
most  of  the  classifications  is,  undoubtedly,  that  they  are 
too  one-sided,  based  upon  one  set  of  properties  to  the  ex- 
clusion of  others,  and  often  on  seeming,  rather  than  real 
resemblances.  This  is  the  difficulty  with  the  old  classifica- 
tion into  metals  and  metalloids,  which  separated  Phos- 
phorus and  Arsenic,  Sulphur  and  Selenium,  because  Ar- 
senic and  Selenium  have  a  metallic  lustre,  while  Phos- 
phorus and  Sulphur  have  not,  though  there  could  hardly 
be  found  another  point  of  difference.  For  a  zoologist  to 
separate  the  ostrich  from  the  class  of  birds  because  it  can- 
not fly,  would  not  be  more  absurd,  than  it  is  for  a  chemist 
to  separate  two  essentially  allied  elements,  because  one 
has  a  metallic  lustre  and  the  other  has  not.  Yet  it  is  sur- 
prising to  see  how  persistently  this  classification  is  retained 

310 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

in  every  elementary  work  on  the  science ;  and  if  it  is  some- 
times so  far  modified  as  to  transfer  elements  analogous  to 
Selenium  and  Arsenic  to  the  class  of  metalloids,  this  is  only 
acknowledging  the  worthlessness  of  the  principle,  without 
being  willing  to  abandon  it.  If  there  were  any  fundamental 
property  common  to  all  the  elements,  the  law  of  whose 
variation  was  known,  this  might  serve  as  the  basis  of  a 
correct  classification.  Chemistry,  however,  does  not  as  yet 
present  us  with  such  a  property,  and  we  must,  therefore, 
here,  as  in  other  sciences,  base  our  classification  on  general 
analogies.  The  most  fundamental  of  all  chemical  proper- 
ties is,  undoubtedly,  crystalline  form,  but  a  classification 
of  the  elements  based  solely  on  the  principles  of  iso- 
morphism is  defective  in  the  same  way  as  it  is  in  mineral- 
ogy. It  brings  together,  undoubtedly,  allied  elements,  but 
it  also  groups  with  them  those  which  resemble  each  other 
only  in  their  crystalline  form.  The  mode  of  combining 
seems  to  be  also  a  fundamental  property ;  but  like  crystal- 
line form  it  would  bring  together  in  some  instances  ele- 
ments differing  very  widely  in  their  chemical  properties. 
A  classification  of  the  elements  which  shall  exhibit  their 
natural  affinities,  must  obviously  pay  regard  to  both  of 
these  properties.  It  must  at  the  same  time  seek  to  group 
together  isomorphous  elements,  and  those  which  form 
analogous  compounds.  Moreover,  in  such  a  classification, 
other  less  fundamental  properties  must  not  be  disregarded. 
There  are  many  properties  both  physical  and  chemical, 
which,  although  they  cannot  be  exactly  measured,  and  are 
oftentimes  difficult  to  define  (such  properties  as  those  by 
which  a  chemist  recognizes  a  familiar  substance,  or  a  min- 
eralogist a  familiar  mineral),  and  which  on  account  of 
their  indefinite  character  cannot  be  used  as  a  basis  of 
classification,  may,  nevertheless,  render  important  aid  in 
tracing  out  analogies.  Judging  from  such  properties  as 
these,  chemists  are  generally  agreed  in  grouping  together 
Carbon,  Boron,  and  Silicon,  although  they  cannot  be  proved 

311 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

to  be  isomorphous,  and  are  not  generally  thought  to  form 
similar  compounds. 

It  is,  however,  much  easier  to  point  out  what  a  classifi- 
cation should  be,  than  to  make  one  which  shall  fulfil  the 
required  conditions.  Indeed,  as  has  been  already  said,  past 
experience  would  seem  to  show  that  a  perfect  scientific 
classification  of  the  elements  is  hardly  possible  in  the  pres- 
ent state  of  Chemistry.  At  best,  the  task  is  attended  with 
great  difficulties,  and  it  cannot  be  expected  that  thesr; 
should  be  surmounted  at  once.  The  classification  which  is 
offered  in  this  memoir  will,  undoubtedly,  be  found  to  con- 
tain many  defects.  If,  however,  it  is  but  one  step  in  ad- 
vance of  those  which  have  preceded  it,  it  will  be  of  value  to 
the  science.  It  was  originally  made,  as  has  already  been 
said,  simply  for  the  purpose  of  teaching,  and  never  would 
have  been  published  had  it  not  led  to  the  discovery  of  the 
numerical  relation  between  the  atomic  weights. 

On  turning  to  the  table  which  accompanies  this  memoir, 
it  will  be  seen  that  the  elements  have  been  grouped  into 
six  series.  These  correspond  entirely  to  the  series  of  homo- 
logues  of  Organic  Chemistry.  In  the  group  of  volatile 
acids  homologues  of  Formic  Acid,  for  example,  we  have  a 
series  of  compounds  yielding  similar  derivatives,  and  pro- 
ducing similar  reactions,  and  many  of  whose  properties, 
such  as  boiling  and  melting  points,  specific  gravity,  etc., 
vary  as  we  descend  in  the  series  according  to  a  determinate 
law.  From  Formic  Acid,  a  highly  limpid,  volatile,  and  cor- 
rosive fluid,  the  acids  become  less  and  less  volatile,  less  and 
less  fluid,  less  and  less  corrosive;  first  oily,  then  fat-like, 
and  finally  hard,  brittle  solids,  like  wax.  As  is  well  known, 
the  composition  of  these  acids  varies  in  the  same  way,  and 
the  variation  follows  a  regular  law,  so  that  by  means  of 
a  general  symbol  we  can  express  the  composition  of  the 
class.  This  symbol  for  the  volatile  acids  may  be  written 
(C2H)  03,  HO+n  (S2H2). 

This  description  of  the  well-known  series  of  the  volatile 

312 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

acids,  applies,  word  for  word,  nominibus  mutantis,  to  each 
of  the  six  series  of  chemical  elements.  The  elements  of  any 
one  series  form  similar  compounds  and  produce  similar  re- 
actions; moreover,  they  resemble  each  other  in  another 
respect  in  which  the  members  of  the  organic  series  do  not. 
Their  crystalline  forms  are  the  same,  or,  in  other  words, 
they  are  isomorphous.  Although  this  may  be  true  of  the 
volatile  acids,  yet  it  cannot  be  proved  in  the  present  state 
of  our  knowledge.  Still  further,  many  of  their  properties 
vary  in  a  regular  manner  as  we  descend  in  the  series.  In 
one  case,  at  least,  the  law  of  the  variation  is  known,  and 
can  be  expressed  algebraically,  though  in  most  instances 
it  cannot  be  determined.  Finally,  as  one  general  symbol 
will  express  the  composition  of  a  whole  organic  series,  so  a 
simple  algebraic  formula  will  express  the  atomic  weight, 
or,  if  you  may  be  pleased  so  to  term  it,  the  constitution  of 
a  series  of  elements. 

These  points  may  be  illustrated  with  any  of  the  series  in 
the  table;  with  the  first,  for  example,  which  consists  of 
Oxygen,  Fluorine,  Cyanogen,  Chlorine,  Bromine,  and 
Iodine.  All  these  elements  form  similar  compounds,  as  will 
be  seen  by  inspecting  the  symbols  of  their  compounds  given 
at  the  right  hand  of  the  list  of  names,  where  the  similar 
or  homologous  compounds  are  arranged  in  upright  columns. 
Moreover,  they  are  all  isomorphous,  as  may  be  seen  by  refer- 
ring to  the  left  hand  side  of  the  list,  where  the  similar 
compounds  in  each  upright  series  are  isomorphous,  the 
numbers  at  the  heads  of  the  columns  indicating  the  sys- 
tems of  crystallization,  as  is  described  in  the  explanation 
accompanying  the  table.  That  the  properties  of  these  ele- 
ments vary  as  we  descend,  can  be  easily  shown.  Oxygen  is 
a  permanent  gas,  as  is  also  Fluorine.  Cyanogen  is  a  gas, 
but  may  be  condensed  to  a  liquid.  Chlorine,  a  gas  also, 
can  be  condensed  more  easily  than  Cyanogen.  Bromine  is 
a  fluid  at  the  ordinary  temperature ;  and  finally,  Iodine  is  a 
solid.  Moreover,  starting  from  Cyanogen,  the  solubility  of 

313 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

these  elements  in  water  decreases  as  we  descend  in  the 
series;  and  again,  the  specific  gravity  of  their  vapors  fol- 
lows the  inverse  order  of  progression,  gradually  increasing 
from  Oxygen  down.  The  atomic  weights  vary  in  the  same 
order,  and  admit  of  a  general  expression,  which  is  8  in  9, 
or  in  other  words,  the  differences  between  the  atomic 
weights  of  these  elements  are  always  a  multiple  of  nine. 
This  general  formula  may  be  said  to  represent  the  consti- 
tution of  these  elements,  in  the  same  way  that  the  symbol 
(C2H)  03,  HO+n  (CJ12)  represents  the  composition  of 
the  volatile  acids  before  mentioned.  In  the  place  of  (C2H) 
O3,  HO  we  have  8=0=  the  weight  of  one  atom  of  Oxygen 
and  in  the  place  of  C2H2  we  have  nine.  "What  it  is  that 
weighs  nine  (for  it  must  be  remembered  that  those  num- 
bers are  weights)  we  cannot  at  present  say,  but  it  is  not 
impossible  that  this  will  be  hereafter  discovered.  In  order 
to  bring  the  general  symbol  of  the  volatile  acids  into  exact 
comparison  with  that  of  the  Nine  Series,  we  must  reduce 
the  symbols  to  weights,  when  the  two  formulas  become 

46+n  14,       where  46=  (C2H)  03,  HO  and  14=C2H2 ; 
and    8+n    9,         where  8=0      and  9=x. 

The  numbers  46  and  14  are  known  to  represent  the  weights 
of  aggregations  of  atoms.  The  number  8  represents  the 
weight  of  one  Oxygen  atom,  but  we  cannot  as  yet  say  what 
the  9  represents.  After  this  comparison,  it  does  not  seem 
bold  theorizing  to  suppose  that  the  atoms  of  the  members 
of  this  series  are  formed  of  an  atom  of  Oxygen  as  a  nucleus, 
to  which  have  been  added  one  or  more  groups  of  atoms,  the 
weight  of  which  equals  nine,  or  perhaps  one  or  more  single 
atoms  each  weighing  nine,  to  which  the  corresponding  ele- 
ment has  not  yet  been  discovered.  As  it  will  be  convenient  to 
have  names  to  denote  the  two  terms  of  the  formulas  which 
represent  the  constitution  of  the  different  series,  we  will 
call  the  first  term,  in  accordance  with  this  theory,  the 

3H 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

nucleus,  and  the  number  in  the  second  term  multiplied  by 
n  the  common  difference  of  the  series. 

From  what  has  been  said,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  idea  of 
the  classification  is  that  of  the  organic  series.  It  is  in  this 
that  the  classification  differs  from  those  which  have  pre- 
ceded it.  Other  authors  in  grouping  together  the  elements 
according  to  the  principles  of  isomorphism,  have  obtained 
groups  very  similar  to  those  here  presented.  Indeed,  this 
could  not  be  otherwise,  since,  as  has  been  already  said,  the 
members  of  each  series  are  isomorphous,  while,  as  a  general 
rule,  to  which,  however,  there  are  many  exceptions,  no 
isomorphism  can  be  established  between  members  of  differ- 
ent series.  These  groups,  however,  have  been  merely 
groups  of  isomorphous  elements,  and  not  series  of  homolo- 
gous like  those  in  which  the  elements  are  here  classed. 

These  general  remarks  will  suffice  to  indicate  the  princi- 
ples upon  which  the  classification  has  been  made,  and  the 
character  of  the  numerical  relation  between  the  atomic 
weights  which  has  been  established.  The  details  of  the 
classification  can  be  best  studied  by  referring  to  the  table 
so  that  it  will  be  only  necessary  to  speak  of  those  points 
which  are  of  special  interest,  or  which  may  require  explan- 
ation, or  in  regard  to  which  there  may  be  doubt.  The  series 
I  have  named  from  their  common  differences.  The  first 
I  have  called  the  Nine  Series,  the  second  the  Eight  Series, 
&c.  Let  us  examine  the  doubtful  points  in  each,  commenc- 
ing with  the  first. 

The  last  five  members  of  the  Eight  Series  are  connected 
by  so  many  analogies,  that  they  have  been  invariably 
grouped  together  in  the  elementary  books.  There  can  be 
no  doubt,  therefore,  in  regard  to  the  propriety  of  placing 
them  in  the  same  series,  on  the  ground  of  general  analogies. 
Fluorine,  it  is  true,  presents  some  striking  points  of  dif- 
ference from  the  rest.  Fluoride  of  Calcium  is  almost  in- 
soluble in  water,  while  the  Chloride,  Bromide,  and  Iodide  of 
Calcium  are  all  very  soluble.  We  must,  however,  remember 

315 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

that  we  have  to  do  with  series,  and  must  not  therefore  ex- 
pect to  find  close  resemblances  except  between  adjacent 
members.  If,  then,  we  consider  that  Oxygen  is  one  of  the 
series,  and  that  Fluorine  stands  but  one  step  removed  from 
Oxygen,  while  it  is  two  steps  removed  from  Chlorine,  the 
discrepancy  in  a  measure  vanishes,  for  Lime  CaO  is  but 
slightly  soluble  in  water.  Nevertheless,  the  difficulty  does 
not  entirely  disappear,  for  CaF  is  much  less  soluble  than 
CaO,  although  it  should  be  more  soluble  than  CaF. 

The  solubility  of  a  series  of  homologous  elements  or  com- 
pounds in  water,  may  be  regarded  as  a  function  of  one  or 
more  variables.  In  the  case  of  elements  there  may  be  but 
one  variable ;  but  it  is  easy  to  see  that  in  the  case  of  com- 
pounds there  must  be  several.  One  of  these  variables  is 
probably  the  same  which  determines  the  common  difference 
of  the  series  to  which  the  elements  or  compounds  belong 
(it  will  be  hereafter  shown  that  the  atomic  weights  of  the 
homologous  compounds  are  related  in  the  same  way  as  those 
of  the  elements)  ;  the  other  variables  are  perhaps  the  ato- 
mic forces  which  determine  the  hardness,  density,  &c.,  of  the 
solid.  We  may,  therefore,  with  justice,  compare  the  rela- 
tive solubilities  of  a  series  of  homologues  to  a  curve  which 
should  be  the  same  function  of  the  same  variables,  and 
what  mathematics  teaches  we  ought  reasonably  to  expect 
in  the  case  of  this  curve,  we  ought  to  expect  also  in  the 
variations  of  solubility  of  these  substances.  Now  every 
mathematician  is  familiar  with  the  remarkably  rapid 
changes  which  a  curve  undergoes  that  is  a  function  of  sev- 
eral variables,  and  we  cannot  be  surprised  that  similarly 
rapid  changes  should  be  observed  in  the  solubility  of  homol- 
ogous substances  in  passing  from  one  to  the  next  in  the 
series.  In  the  curve  which  corresponds  to  the  relative 
solubility  of  CaO,  CaF,  CaCy,  CaCl,  CaBr,  and  Cal,  it 
would  seem  that  at  CaF  there  is  a  singular  point  where  the 
curve,  after  rising  for  some  distance  above  the  axis,  bends 
down  again  towards  it.  Several  of  the  other  series  of  com- 

316 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

pounds  of  these  elements  present  similar  anomalies;  for 
example,  KO,  KF,  KCy,  KC1,  KBr,  and  KI.  Here  the 
solubility  diminishes  until  we  come  to  KC1,  which  is  less 
soluble  than  KCy;  then  it  increases  to  the  last.  Here,  of 
course,  the  singular  point  is  at  KC1.  With  the  correspond- 
ing compounds  of  Sodium,  the  solubility  diminishes  to  NaF, 
which  is  the  least  soluble  of  the  series,  and  then  increases 
constantly  to  the  end. 

These  facts  at  least  seem  to  show  that  apparent  variations 
from  the  law  of  series  in  properties,  which  evidently  are 
unknown  functions  of  several  variables,  should  not  be  al- 
lowed to  outweigh  strong  analogies,  and  certainly  the  an- 
alogies between  Fluorine  and  the  other  haloids  are  very 
marked.  Fluorine  itself  possessed  properties  such  as  we 
should  expect  to  find  in  a  member  of  the  series  above 
Chlorine.  The  strong  and  active  affinities  of  Fluorine 
might  be  indeed  predicted,  after  seeing  the  rapid  increase 
both  in  the  strength  and  activity  of  the  affinities  in  passing 
from  Iodine  to  Chlorine.  In  passing  from  Bromine  to 
Chlorine,  we  pass  from  a  liquid  to  a  gas,  permanent  under 
any  natural  conditions;  and  we  should  expect,  therefore, 
in  rising  still  higher  in  the  series,  to  find  in  Fluorine  a 
gas  less  easily  reduced  to  a  liquid  than  Chlorine.  Now 
although,  on  account  of  its  remarkably  active  affinities,  this 
fact  cannot  be  demonstrated  on  the  gas  itself;  it  can, 
nevertheless,  be  inferred  with  perfect  certainty  from  its 
compounds.  Finally,  the  isomorphism  of  Fluorine,  and 
the  other  haloids  may  be  urged  as  indicating  close  analogy. 
From  these  considerations,  I  cannot  but  think  that  those 
chemists  who  have  questioned  the  propriety  of  classing 
Fluorine  with  the  other  haloids  will,  on  reviewing  the  facts, 
and  regarding  the  haloids  in  the  light  of  a  series,  and 
not  simply  as  a  group  of  elements  possessing  certain  prop- 
erties, be  led  to  change  their  opinion. 

Cyanogen,  though  a  compound  radical,  has  been  classed 
with  the  other  haloids,  not  only  from  its  atomic  weight, 

317 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

but  also  from  its  other  analogies.  Its  properties  are  in 
most  cases  those  which  we  should  expect  from  an  element 
occupying  its  position  in  the  series;  but  in  others  it  pre- 
sents remarkable  variations,  owing  probably  to  the  fact 
that  it  contains  a  radical  which  is  easily  decomposed.  As 
well  known,  it  is  perfectly  isomorphous  with  Chlorine. 

The  property  of  classing  Oxygen  in  this  series  seems  to 
be  placed  beyond  doubt  by  the  discovery  of  Ozone,  which, 
though  it  does  not  seem  to  possess  such  energy  as  we  should 
expect  in  an  element  higher  in  the  series  than  Fluorine, 
may,  nevertheless,  be  found  to  fulfil  all  anticipations  should 
it  ever  be  obtained  in  a  perfectly  unmixed  condition.  The 
isomorphism  of  Oxygen  with  Chlorine,  and  therefore  with 
the  other  haloids,  seemed  sufficiently  established  by  the  de- 
termination both  of  Proust  and  Mitscherlich  of  the  tetra- 
hedral  form  of  Cu2  Cl.  It  must,  however,  be  admitted  that 
Oxygen  presents  as  strong  analogies  with  Sulphur  as  it 
does  with  Chlorine ;  and  since,  not  only  from  its  analogies, 
but  also  from  its  atomic  weight,  it  appears  to  be  the  nu- 
cleus on  all  the  first  three  series,  I  have  placed  it  at  the 
head  of  each.  It  may  be  mentioned  here,  that  in  all  cases 
the  fact  that  the  atomic  weight  of  an  element  is  included 
in  the  general  formula  of  a  series,  is  an  argument  for  class- 
ifying it  in  that  series,  if  the  relation  between  the  atomic 
weights  pointed  out  in  this  memoir  is  admitted  to  be  a  law 
of  nature ;  but  as  I  wish  to  show  that  the  relation  is  not  that 
of  a  mere  accidental  group  of  numbers,  but  is  connected 
with  the  most  fundamental  properties  of  the  elements, 
and  has,  therefore,  the  claims  of  a  law,  I  have  endeavored 
to  establish  the  correctness  of  the  classification  which  con- 
forms to  the  law,  and,  indeed,  suggested  the  law  on  other 
grounds. 

The  atomic  weights  of  the  members  of  the  Nine  Series,  as 
determined  by  experiment,  present  greater  deviations  from 
the  numerical  law  already  explained,  than  are  to  be  found 
in  any  of  the  others.  The  weights  which  would  exactly 

318 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

conform  to  the  general  formula  8  +  n9  are  given  in  the 
column  of  the  table  headed  Theoretical,  while  in  the  next 
column  at  the  right  are  given  the  weights  of  experiment. 
These  for  the  most  part  (in  this  as  well  as  in  the  other 
series)  have  been  taken  from  the  table  of  Atomic  Weights 
given  in  the  last  volume  of  Liebig  and  Kopp's  Jahresbe- 
richt  (for  1852),  which  was  supposed  to  give  the  most  ac- 
curate and  latest  results.  In  the  few  cases  in  which  the 
numbers  have  not  been  taken  from  this  table,  the  initial 
letter  of  the  name  of  the  observer  has  been  annexed.  It 
will  be  seen,  on  comparing  the  two  columns  that  the  great- 
est deviation  from  the  law  is  in  the  case  of  Fluorine,  if  we 
consider  the  care  which  was  taken  both  by  Berzelius  and 
Louyet,  in  the  determination  of  the  atomic  weight  of  this 
element.  It  may,  however,  be  remarked,  that,  as  the  proc- 
esses used  by  both  experimenters  were  essentially  identical, 
any  hidden  constant  source  of  error  would  produce  the 
same  effect  on  both  results;  so  that  the  atomic  weight  of 
Fluorine  cannot  be  regarded  as  yet  as  absolutely  fixed. 
Nevertheless,  it  is  not  possible  that  so  great  a  difference 
between  the  true  and  observed  weights  as  two  units  could 
have  escaped  detection  in  the  numberless  analyses  which 
have  been  made,  by  the  most  experienced  chemists,  of  the 
Fluorine  compounds.  It  must,  therefore,  be  admitted, 
and  not  only  in  the  case  of  Fluorine,  but  also  in  other  in- 
stances, that  there  are  deviations  from  the  law;  but  these 
deviations  are  not  greater  than  those  from  similar  numeri- 
cal laws  in  astronomy  and  other  sciences,  and  indeed,  judg- 
ing from  the  analogy  of  these  sciences,  ought  to  be  expected. 
Those  who  are  not  familiar  with  the  amounts  of  probable 
error  in  the  determination  of  the  different  atomic  weights 
would  judge,  on  comparing  together  the  columns  of  theo- 
retical and  observed  values,  that  the  deviations  from  the 
law  were  much  greater  than  they  are  in  reality.  It  should, 
therefore,  be  stated,  that,  in  by  far  the  larger  number  of 
instances,  the  deviations  are  within  the  limit  of  possible 

319 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

errors  in  the  determinations,  leaving  only  a  few  exceptional 
cases  to  be  accounted  for.  It  must  be  remembered  that, 
other  things  being  equal,  the  amount  of  probable  error  is 
greater  the  greater  the  atomic  weight,  so  that  a  differ- 
ence of  1.9  in  the  case  of  Iodine  is  not  a  greater  actual 
deviation  from  the  law  than  only  0.5  in  the  case  of  Chlorine. 
Indeed,  it  is  very  possible  that  on  more  accurate  determina- 
tions the  atomic  weight  of  Iodine  will  be  found  to  corre- 
spond to  the  law,  which  cannot  be  expected  of  that  of  Chlo- 
rine. It  is  well  known  that  many  of  the  larger  atomic 
weights,  especially  those  of  the  rarer  elements,  cannot  be 
regarded  as  fixed  within  several  units. 

I  have  calculated,  as  well  as  the  data  I  have  would  per- 
mit, the  amount  of  probable  error  in  the  determinations  of 
many  of  the  atomic  weights,  and  by  comparing  together 
the  results  from  different  processes,  and  by  different  ex- 
perimenters, I  have  endeavored  to  detect  the  existence  of 
constant  errors,  which  seem  to  be  the  great  errors  in  all 
these  determinations,  those  accidental  errors  which  are 
made  in  the  repetitions  of  the  same  process  by  equally  care- 
ful experimenters  being  comparatively  insignificant.  The 
results  of  this  investigation  will  be  published  in  a  subse- 
quent memoir.  It  is  sufficient  for  the  present  purpose  to 
state,  that,  while  they  show  that,  in  the  greater  number  of 
cases,  the  apparent  variations  from  the  law  are  within  the 
limit  of  probable  error,  there  are  yet  several  instances, 
where,  after  allowing  for  all  possible  errors  of  observation, 
there  is  a  residual  difference.  I  do  not  therefore  look  alone 
to  more  accurate  observations  for  a  confirmation  of  the 
law,  but  regarding  the  variations  as  ascertained  facts,  hope 
that  future  discovery  will  reveal  the  cause.  Whether  the 
variations  will  be  found  to  be  a  secondary  result  of  the 
very  cause  which  has  determined  the  distribution  of  the 
atomic  weights  according  to  a  numerical  law,  as  the  per- 
turbations in  astronomy  are  a  necessary  consequence  of  the 
very  law  they  seemed  at  first  to  invalidate,  or  whether  they 

320 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

are  due  to  independent  causes,  can  of  course,  for  the  pres- 
ent, be  only  a  matter  of  speculation.  There  are,  however, 
facts  which  seem  to  indicate  that  the  variations  are  not 
matters  of  chance,  but  correspond  to  variations  in  the  prop- 
erties of  the  elements. 

From  the  beautiful  discovery  of  Professor  Schonbein  we 
have  learnt  that  Oxygen  has  two  allotropic  modifications, 
and  that  besides  its  ordinary  condition  it  is  capable  of  as- 
suming another  highly  active  state  when  its  properties 
resemble  those  of  Chlorine.  Cyanogen  is  only  known  in  a 
quiescent  state.  The  other  haloids,  Fluorine,  Chlorine, 
Bromine,  and  Iodine  are  only  known  in  a  highly  active 
state.  Now  it  will  be  seen  on  examining  the  table  that  the 
atomic  weights  of  the  highly  active  elements,  as  determined 
by  experiment,  exceed  slightly  the  theoretical  numbers,  and 
that  where  the  affinities  are  the  most  intense,  in  Fluorine, 
the  deviation  is  the  greatest.  A  similar  fact  may  be  ob- 
served in  the  atomic  weights  of  the  members  of  the  Six 
Series.  Arsenic  has  been  proved  to  be  capable  of  existing 
in  two  allotropic  modifications.  In  its  ordinary  state,  it 
has  a  crystalline  form  belonging  to  the  Rhombic  System. 
In  the  other  condition,  in  which  it  may  be  obtained  by 
sublimation  at  a  low  temperature,  it  crystallizes  in  regular 
octahedrons.  The  other  members  of  this  series  are  probably 
isodimorphs  with  Arsenic.  The  ordinary  condition  of 
Phosphorus  is  its  monometric  modification,  while  the  rhom- 
bic state  seems  to  be  the  normal  condition  of  Arsenic,  Anti- 
mony, and  Bismuth.  Now  the  atomic  weights  of  the  last 
three  are  either  equal  to,  or  slightly  exceed,  the  theoretical 
number,  while  that  of  the  first  fall  short,  perhaps  even  by 
a  unit.  Other  facts,  which  also  tend  to  show  that  the  devia- 
tions are  not  matters  of  chance,  may  be  found  in  the  affilia- 
tions of  the  series.  There  are  some  elements  which  seem 
to  be  most  remarkably  double-faced,  having  certain  proper- 
ties which  connect  them  closely  witn  one  series,  and  at  the 
same  time  others  which  unite  them  nearly  as  closely  to  an- 

321 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

other.  In  such  cases  we  find  that  the  atomic  weight 
either  falls  naturally  into  hoth  series,  or,  not  correspond  ing 
exactly  with  the  theoretical  number  of  the  series  to  which 
the  element  properly  belongs,  it  inclines  towards  that  of 
the  other,  and  sometimes  equals  it.  Such  is  the  case  with 
Chromium,  Manganese,  and  Gold,  as  will  be  seen  by  re- 
ferring to  the  affiliations  at  the  bottom  of  the  Nine  Series. 
These  various  facts  force  upon  me  the  conviction,  that  this 
relation  between  the  atomic  weights  is  not  a  matter  of 
chance,  but  that  it  was  a  part  of  the  grand  plan  of  the 
Framer  of  the  universe,  and  that  in  the  very  deviations, 
from  the  law,  there  will,  hereafter,  be  found  fresh  evi- 
dence of  the  wisdom  and  forethought  of  its  Divine  Author. 
The  general  formula}  for  the  Eight  Series  are  8-|-n8  and 
4-f-n8.  The  two  nuclei  correspond  to  two  different  sets  of 
elements,  or  sub-series,  one  consisting  of  Oxygen,  Sulphur. 
Selenium,  and  Tellurium,  the  other  of  Molybdenum,  Van- 
adium, Tungsten,  and  Tantalum.  The  atomic  weights  of 
the  first  are  all  equal  to  8+n8 ;  those  of  the  second  to  4+n8. 
The  sub-series  exhibit  marked  analogies,  as  well  as  certain 
differences.  They  resemble  each  other  chiefly  in  that  the 
members  of  both  form  analogous  acids  with  Oxygen,  while 
they  differ  in  that,  though  the  members  of  the  first  sub- 
series  form  compounds  with  Hydrogen,  those  of  the  sec- 
ond do  not.  The  isomorphism  of  the  members  of  each  sub- 
series  among  themselves,  with  the  exception  of  Vanadium, 
is  complete;  but  there  seems  to  be  no  proof  of  any  iso- 
morphism between  the  sub-series,  Johnston  attempted  to 
establish  the  isomorphism  of  Chromic  and  Molybdic  Acids 
from  the  red  variety  of  Molybdate  of  Lead  from  Rezbanya, 
which  he  supposed  to  be  a  Chromate ;  but  the  fact  has  been 
disproved  by  G.  Rose,  who  has  shown  that  the  supposed 
Chromate  is  a  Molybdate  mixed  with  a  small  amount  only 
of  Chromate.  There  seems,  nevertheless,  to  be  some  rea- 
son for  believing  that  Chromic  Acid  may  replace  Molybdic 
Acid  to  a  certain  extent.  If  this  is  proved,  it  establishes 

322 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

another  link  of  connection  between  the  members  of  the 
two  sub-series,  since  Chromic  Acid  is  isomorphous  with 
Sulphuric  Acid.  For  the  present,  however,  we  must  re- 
gard them  as  sub-series,  related,  but  distinct,  the  second 
being  in  a  measure  supplementary  to  the  first.  They  are 
distinguished  in  the  table  by  printing  the  names  of  the 
second  sub-series  a  little  to  the  right  of  those  of  the  first, 
and  the  fact  that  their  atomic  weights  are  intermediate  to 
those  of  the  first,  I  have  indicated  to  the  eye  by  giving 
to  the  names  also  an  intermediate  position. 

The  analogies  between  Oxygen  and  Sulphur  are  so  nu- 
merous, that  were  we  to  place  Oxygen  in  but  one  series,  we 
should  place  it  in  this.  HO  and  US,  H02  and  HS2,  re- 
semble each  other  very  closely,  as  do  also  the  Oxygen  salts 
the  corresponding  Sulphur  salts.  Moreover,  there  can  be 
no  doubt  in  regard  to  the  isomorphism  of  the  two  elements, 
since  it  has  been  established  upon  the  authority  both  of 
Mitscherlich  and  Becquerel,  and  from  two  different  com- 
pounds. The  only  doubtful  case  in  the  series  was  that  of 
Vanadium,  which  in  some  of  its  properties  resembles  Ar- 
senic more  closely  than  it  does  Molybdenum.  The  reasons 
for  giving  it  the  place  which  it  occupies  were  the  facts  that 
its  acids  correspond  to  those  of  Molybdenum,  and  that 
it  forms  remarkably  highly  colored  oxides  which  are  re- 
peated also  in  Molybdenum.  It  is  true  that  the  properties 
of  the  element  itself  are  not  those  we  should  expect  from 
the  position  which  it  occupies  in  our  table;  yet,  if  it  were 
placed  in  the  Six  Series,  it  would  fall  between  Phosphorus 
and  Arsenic,  which  on  the  whole  it  resembles  less  than  it 
does  Molybdenum,  for  although  it  is  combustible,  yet 
neither  it  nor  its  oxides  are  volatile.  I  consider  it,  there- 
fore, as  a  member  of  the  Eight  Series,  but  affiliating  very 
closely  with  the  Six.  Its  atomic  weight  favors  this  hypothe- 
sis. Vanadate  of  Lead  has  been  considered  isomorphous 
with  the  Phosphate ;  but  as  this  isomorphism  does  not  rest 
on  any  measurement  of  angles,  and  as,  moreover,  the  re- 

323 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

ceived  symbols  of  the  two  minerals,  Vanadinite  and  Pyro- 
morphite,  on  whose  crystalline  forms  the  isomorphism  was 
determined,  show  a  very  different  constitution,  I  have  not 
given  much  weight  to  this  fact.*  The  observed  atomic 
weights  of  the  members  of  this  series  are  almost  precisely 
the  same  as  theoretical  members,  and,  with  the  exception, 
perhaps,  of  Molybdenum,  there  appears  to  be  no  instance  in 
which  the  difference  is  greater  than  the  amount  of  possible 
error. 

The  members  of  the  Six  Group  form  a  well-characterized 
family,  so  that,  with  the  exception  of  Oxygen,  there  can 
be  no  doubt  in  regard  to  the  justice  of  classifying  them 
together,  and  any  discrepancies  will  disappear  on  consider- 
ing the  group  in  the  light  of  a  series.  They  form  acids  con- 
taining three  and  five  atoms  of  Oxygen  which  are  complete- 
ly homologous,  and  make  two  series  parallel  to  that  of  the 
elements.  They  form  also  a  remarkable  series  of  com- 
pounds with  three  atoms  of  Hydrogen.  The  idea  which  has 
been  advanced  by  some  authors,  that  NH3  is  the  Nitride  of 
Hydrogen,  while  PH3  is  the  Hyduret  of  Phosphorus,  or, 
in  other  words,  that  Hydrogen  is  electro-positive  with  ref- 
erence to  Nitrogen  and  electro-negative  with  reference  to 
Phosphorus  and  those  lower  in  the  series,  does  not  seem 
to  me  correct,  since  the  remarkable  bases  which  may  be 
formed  from  PH3,  AsH3,  SbH3,  and  BiH3,  by  replacing 
the  Hydrogen  atoms  by  organic  radicals,  seem  to  indicate 
that  they  have  the  same  type  as  NH3,  and  are  therefore 
homologues  of  it. 

The  isomorphism  of  the  four  lower  members  of  the  se- 
ries is  perfect.  It  has  been  shown  in  the  table,  both  by 
the  crystalline  forms  of  the  elements  themselves,  as  well 
as  by  those  of  their  compounds.  In  the  other  series,  wher- 
ever it  was  possible,  the  same  double  proof  has  been  given. 
The  doubt  expressed  by  G.  Rose  in  regard  to  the  dimor- 
phism of  Arsenic,  as  I  hope  to  be  able  to  show  in  a  paper 

*  See  G.  Hose  fa  Mineral  System. 

324 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

soon  to  be  published,  has  been  removed.  In  one  state 
Arsenic  crystallizes  in  perfect  octahedrons  of  the  regular 
system,  and  is  therefore  isomorphous,  not  only  with  Anti- 
mony and  Bismuth,  but  also,  in  its  allotropic  state,  with 
Phosphorus.  Isomorphism,  as  is  well  known,  is  not  abso- 
lute, except  in  forms  of  the  regular  system.  The  rhombic 
angles  of  the  crystals  of  Arsenic,  Antimony,  and  Bismuth 
are  respectively  85°  41',  87°  35',  87°  40',  and  therefore 
conform  to  the  general  rule.  It  will  be  observed  that  the 
angle  varies  constantly  in  the  same  way  as  we  descend  in 
the  series.  Now,  although  these  few  instances  do  not  afford 
sufficient  ground  for  any  general  conclusion,  yet  they  show 
that  similar  variations  are  possible  in  the  other  systems, 
and  therefore  that  we  cannot  be  expected  to  establish  iso- 
morphism in  any  case  except  between  nearly  consecutive 
members. 

The  atomic  weights  of  the  members  of  this  series,  with 
the  exception  of  Phosphorus,  do  not  present  any  important 
deviations  from  the  theoretical  numbers,  taking  into  ac- 
count always,  of  course,  the  amount  of  possible  error.  The 
deviation  in  the  case  of  Phosphorus  has  already  been 
noticed.  Oxygen,  it  must  be  admitted,  is  not  connected 
with  the  series  from  any  similarity  of  properties,  though 
the  Phosphides,  Arsenides,  and  Antimonides  present  cer- 
tain analogies  with  the  Oxides.  As  has  already  been  said, 
Oxygen  was  placed  at  the  head  of  this,  as  well  as  of  the 
last  two  series,  its  atomic  weight  seemed  to  be  the  nucleus 
of  all  three. 

The  Five  Series  is  the  shortest  of  all,  consisting  of  only 
three  members,  Carbon,  Boron,  and  Silicon.  Of  these,  the 
last  two  are  as  closely  allied  as  are  any  two  members  of 
the  other  series,  Silicon  having  precisely  the  properties  we 
should  expect  in  a  homologue  of  Boron,  which  was  lower 
in  the  series ;  and  the  same  is  also  true  of  their  compounds. 
The  analogies,  however,  between  these  two  elements  and 
Carbon  are  by  no  means  so  close,  for  not  only  Carbon  can- 

325 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

not  be  proved  to  be  isomorphous  with  them,  but  it  does  not 
form  similar  compounds.  Carbonic  Acid,  it  is  true,  pre- 
sents some  points  of  resemblance  to  Boracic  and  Silicic 
Acids ;  like  them  it  unites  in  a  large  variety  of  proportions 
with  bases,  its  alkaline  salts  give  a  basic  reaction,  &c. ;  but 
according  to  the  generally  received  opinion,  its  symbol  is 
C02,  while  those  of  Boron  and  Silicon  are  B03  and  Si03. 
In  its  uncombined  state,  however,  Carbon  resembles  Boron 
and  Silicon,  not  only  in  its  outward  properties,  but  also  in 
its  action  before  the  blowpipe.  Two  of  the  allotropic  states 
of  Carbon,  Graphite,  and  Charcoal,  are  probably  repeated 
in  Boron,  and  are  known  to  be  in  Silicon.  The  principle 
of  exclusion  would  seem  to  place  Carbon  in  this  series,  for 
it  certainly  presents  no  analogies  with  the  members  of  any 
other.  The  correspondence  of  the  atomic  weights  of  the 
members  of  this  series  to  the  law  is  remarkably  close. 

The  Four  Series  is  by  far  the  largest  of  all,  including  the 
greater  number  of  what  are  generally  known  as  the  heavy 
metals.  The  members  of  the  series  resemble  each  other  in 
the  following  respects,  First,  they  are  isomorphous;  for 
though  each  member  cannot  be  directly  proved  to  be  iso- 
morphous with  every  other,  yet  isomorphism  can  be  estab- 
lished between  consecutive  members,  which,  as  has  before 
been  said,  is  all  that  can  be  expected.  Second,  the  members 
of  this  series  all  form,  by  uniting  with  Oxygen,  either  Pro- 
toxides or  Sesquioxides,  or  both,  which,  as  a  general  rule, 
are  strong  bases.  Third,  these  Oxides  are  either  insoluble, 
or  nearly  insoluble,  in  water.  And  finally,  the  elements  of 
the  series  have  all  those  physical  properties  which  are 
known  as  metallic  properties. 

This  series  may  be  naturally  divided  into  two  sub-series. 
The  first  contains  those  elements  whose  protoxide  bases  are 
their  characteristic  compounds,  and  which  do  not  form 
acids  with  Oxygen.  The  second  contains  those  elements 
whose  characteristic  compounds  are  their  sesquibases.  They 
generally  unite  with  two  or  more  equivalents  of  Oxygen, 

326 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

and  form  acids.  These  sub-series  are  distinguished  in  the 
table  in  the  same  way  as  those  of  the  Six  Series.  Corre- 
sponding to  these  sub-series  we  have  two  sets  of  atomic 
weights,  each  having  the  same  common  difference,  but  dif- 
fering in  their  starting  point  or  nucleus.  The  first  set  ex- 
pressed by  the  formula  4+n4,  the  second  by  2+n4. 

The  sub-series  affiliate  with  each  other  in  a  most  re- 
markable manner.  Manganese,  for  example,  not  only  forms 
a  strong  protoxide  base,  but  also  unites  with  a  larger 
amount  of  Oxygen,  forming  both  a  sesquibase  and  acids. 
Its  atomic  weight  places  it  in  the  first  group,  and  it  has 
therefore  been  classed  there,  although  by  its  properties 
it  is  equally  allied  to  the  second.  Cobalt  and  Nickel  cer- 
tainly resemble  much  more  closely  the  members  of  the  first 
than  of  the  second  sub-series,  although  their  atomic  weights 
place  them  in  the  second.  With  this  exception,  the  subdi- 
vision of  the  series  which  the  atomic  weights  require  does 
not  differ  from  that  suggested  by  the  properties  of  the 
elements.  The  members  of  this  series  may  of  course  be  still 
further  subdivided  into  groups  according  to  their  special 
properties,  as  they  are  in  all  works  on  Chemistry.  They 
are  placed  together  here  because  the  atomic  weights  form 
but  one  numerical  series. 

The  isomorphism  of  the  members  of  this  series  will  be 
found  well  established  with  the  limitations  before  given. 
In  order  to  establish  the  isomorphism  of  Cobalt  and  Nickel 
with  Iron,  the  isomorphism  of  one  atom  of  Arsenic  with 
two  atoms  of  Sulphur  has  been  assumed.  This  is  generally 
admitted;  but  if  it  is  not,  no  one  can  doubt  in  regard  to 
the  isomorphism  of  these  three  metals,  as  they  constantly 
replace  each  other.  Glucinum,  Zirconium,  Lanthanum, 
Cerium,  and  Thorium  cannot  be  shown  to  be  isomorphous 
with  the  other  metals  by  any  of  their  compounds,  but  their 
oxides  are  known  to  replace  the  analogous  oxides  of  the 
other  metals.  So  also  is  Ruthenium  known  to  replace  Rho- 
dium. There  have  been  doubts  expressed  in  regard  to  the 

327 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

existence  of  a  monometric  form  of  Zinc;  but  as  we  have 
established  its  isomorphism  with  the  other  members  of  the 
series,  not  only  by  its  own  crystalline  form,  but  also  by 
those  of  its  compounds,  the  fact  is  of  no  importance  to  the 
present  question.  The  atomic  weights  of  the  members, 
as  determined  by  observation,  very  nearly  correspond  with 
the  theoretical  numbers,  which  is  the  more  remarkable,  as 
the  limit  of  error  in  the  determination  of  the  atomic  weights 
of  the  greater  number,  especially  of  the  rarer  metals,  is 
quite  wide. 

The  Three  (and  last)  Series  is  composed  of  Hydrogen 
and  the  metals  of  the  alkalies.  The  analogies  between 
Lithium,  Sodium,  and  Potassium  are  very  close,  as  is  well 
known,  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  in  regard  to  the  pro- 
priety of  classing  them  together.  It  may  be  said,  however, 
in  regard  to  Hydrogen,  that  it  resembles  as  closely  some 
of  the  metals  of  the  Four  Series  as  it  does  those  of  the 
alkalies.  Though  this  cannot  be  denied,  yet  the  fact  that 
the  atomic  weight  of  Hydrogen  is  the  nucleus  of  the  series, 
and  the  great  solubility  of  the  alkalies  in  water,  may  be 
urged  as  reasons  for  placing  it  at  the  head  of  the  Three 
Series. 

The  isomorphism  of  Lithium,  Sodium,  and  Potassium  is 
fully  established;  but  I  can  find  no  data  which  prove 
Hydrogen  isomorphous  either  with  them  or  with  the  metals 
of  the  other  group. 

The  unit  of  the  atomic  weights  which  has  been  used  thus 
far  throughout  the  table,  is  the  double  atom  of  Hydrogen ; 
but  the  nucleus  of  the  Three  Series  is  the  weight  of  the 
single  atom,  so  that  the  unit  in  this  series  is  one  half  of 
the  unit  of  the  weights  in  all  the  other  series.  This  fact 
must  be  kept  in  mind  in  comparing  the  atomic  weights  of 
this  with  those  of  the  other  series.  All  the  weights  might 
have  been  made  uniform  by  doubling  them  throughout; 
but  as  this  would  not  have  changed  the  relation,  and  would 
have  been  departing  from  the  general  custom,  it  was 

328 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

thought  best  to  confine  the  doubling  to  the  Three  Series, 
into  which  alone  Hydrogen  enters.  The  general  symbol  of 
this  series  is  l+n3,  where  of  course  the  unit  is  one  half 
of  that  of  the  symbols  at  the  head  of  the  other  series.  The 
observed  atomic  weights  will  be  found  to  correspond  very 
closely  with  the  theoretical  numbers ;  indeed,  the  two  coin- 
cide, except  in  the  case  of  Potassium,  where  the  difference 
is  0.6.  This,  however,  it  must  be  remembered,  is  0.6  of  the 
single  Hydrogen  atom.  Compared  with  the  double  atom, 
as  the  weight  of  Potassium  is  generally  given,  the  difference 
amounts  to  but  0.3. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  points  of  the  classification 
which  has  been  now  explained,  is  the  affiliation  of  the  series. 
We  find  in  Chemistry,  as  in  other  sciences,  that  Nature 
seems  to  abhor  abrupt  transitions,  and  shades  off  her  bound- 
ing lines.  Many  of  the  elements,  while  they  manifestly 
belong  to  one  series,  have  properties  which  ally  them  to 
another.  Several  examples  of  this  have  already  been  no- 
ticed. In  such  cases,  we  find  invariably  that  there  is  a 
similar  affiliation  of  the  atomic  weight.  Of  all  the  elements 
Chromium  and  Manganese  are  the  most  protean.  Two 
atoms  of  these  elements  unite  with  seven  atoms  of  Oxygen 
and  form  acids  analogous  to  Perchloric  Acid,  and,  as  has 
already  been  shown,  the  weight  of  two  atoms  of  either  ele- 
ment falls  into  the  Nine  Series.  Moreover,  one  atom  of 
Chromium  or  of  Manganese  unites  with  three  atoms  of 
Oxygen  to  form  Chromic  or  Manganic  Acid.  Chromic  Acid 
is  a  strong  oxidizing  agent,  and  resembles  closely  Nitrous 
Acid,  and  the  atomic  weight  of  Chromium  falls  into  the 
Six  Series  just  below  that  of  Nitrogen.  Manganic  Acid,  on 
the  other  hand,  resembles  Sulphuric  Acid,  with  which  it 
is  isomorphous,  and  the  atomic  weight  of  Manganese  would 
place  it  in  the  Eight  Series.  In  like  manner  Osmium  in 
many  of  its  properties  resembles  Platinum  and  the  other 
metals  with  which  it  is  associated  in  nature;  but,  unlike 
them,  it  forms  a  very  remarkable  volatile  acid,  whose  in- 

329 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

supportable  and  suffocating  odor  as  well  as  composition 
reminds  one  of  the  acids  of  the  Nine  Series,  and  its  atomic 
weight  seems  to  justify  the  apparent  analogy.  Gold  like- 
wise, though  the  noblest  of  metals,  yet  in  some  of  its  chemi- 
cal relations  resembles  much  more  closely  the  members  of 
the  Nine  than  of  the  Four  Series,  and  here  again  its  ac- 
commodating atomic  weight  seems  to  account  for  its  double- 
sided  character.  Several  other  examples  of  similar  affilia- 
tions are  given  in  the  Table,  but  do  not  need  explanation. 

In  the  description  just  concluded  of  the  classification  of 
the  chemical  elements,  which  is  offered  in  this  memoir,  I 
have  not  entered  into  details,  for  to  have  done  so  would 
have  been  to  write  a  treatis,e  on  Chemistry.  I  have  con- 
fined myself  almost  exclusively  to  general  points,  and  only 
referred  to  those  particulars  which  I  thought  might  pre- 
sent doubts.  I  hope  that  I  have  been  able  to  show,  first, 
that  the  chemical  elements  may  be  classified  in  a  few  series 
similar  to  the  series  of  homologues  of  Organic  Chemistry; 
second,  that  in  those  series  the  properties  of  the  elements 
follow  a  law  of  progression;  and  finally,  that  the  atomic 
weights  vary  according  to  a  similar  law,  which  may  be 
expressed  by  a  simple  algebraic  formula.  As  already  inti- 
mated, I  have  endeavored  to  prove  the  correctness  of  the 
classification  on  general  grounds,  in  order  that  it  might 
appear  that  the  simple  numerical  relation  which  has  been 
discovered  between  the  atomic  weights  is  not  a  matter  of 
chance,  but  is  connected  with  the  most  fundamental  prop- 
erties of  the  elements.  I  might  leave  the  subject  at  this 
point,  but  the  existence  of  the  law  which  I  wish  to  estab- 
lish will  be  proved  more  conclusively  if  it  can  be  shown, 
not  simply  that  the  general  properties  of  the  members  of 
each  series  vary  in  a  regular  manner,  but  also  if  in  one  or 
more  cases  the  exact  law  of  the  variation  can  be  pointed 
out. 

There  are  but  few  properties  of  the  elements  which  are 
subjects  of  measurements,  and  which  therefore  can  be 

330 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

compared  numerically.  Such  are  the  specific  gravity  in 
the  three  states  of  aggregation,  the  boiling  and  melting 
points,  the  capacity  of  heat,  and  a  few  others.  It  is  easy 
to  see  that  there  are  but  few  of  these  properties  the  law 
of  whose  variation  in  the  series  we  could  reasonably  ex- 
pect to  discover  in  the  present  state  of  existence.  Most 
of  them  evidently  depend  upon  molecular  forces  with  which 
we  are  entirely  unacquainted.  Such  in  solids  is  un- 
doubtedly the  case  with  so  simple  and  fundamental  prop- 
erty as  specific  gravity,  and  most,  if  not  all,  of  the  other 
properties  of  solids  belong  to  the  same  category.  It  can- 
not therefore  be  expected  that  we  should  point  out  the  laws 
by  which  these  properties  vary,  although  the  remarkable 
investigations  of  Dana,  Filhol,  Kopp,  Schroder,  and  others, 
on  the  relations  between  the  density  of  substances  and  their 
atomic  weights,  and  those  of  Kenngott  on  the  relation  of 
hardness  to  atomic  volume,  give  grounds  for  expecting  that 
even  they  will  before  long  be  discovered.  In  liquids  and 
gases,  however,  most  of  these  molecular  forces  which  pro- 
duce the  apparent  irregularities  in  solids  have  less  influ- 
ence, as  we  should  naturally  expect,  probably  because  the 
atoms  are  removed  out  of  the  sphere  of  their  action.  We 
may  therefore  hope,  on  comparing  together  the  properties 
of  the  liquid  or  gaseous  status  of  the  elements  in  any  series, 
to  discover  some  numerical  relation  between  them.  Un- 
fortunately, however,  we  have  not  sufficient  data  for  mak- 
ing such  a  comparison  except  in  the  case  of  one  property, 
the  specific  gravity.  The  boiling  point,  which  would  be 
a  very  valuable  property  for  the  purpose,  is  known  only 
in  a  few  instances. 

That  the  specific  gravity  of  the  elements  in  their  gaseous 
state  varies  in  each  series  according  to  a  numerical  law, 
follows  necessarily  from  what  is  already  known.  It  is  a 
well-known  fact,  that  the  specific  gravities  of  the  gaseous 
states  of  the  elements  divided  by  their  atomic  weights  give 
quotients  which  are  either  equal,  or  which  stand  in  a  very 

331 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

simple  relation  to  each  other.  For  any  series,  as  far  as 
we  have  data,  this  quotient  is  the  same  for  all  the  elements 
with  only  a  few  exceptions.  That  is  f'  zi'  =  p.  But 

A.t>.   W  • 

we  have  found  that  At.  W.  may  be  expressed  in  general  by 
a+nb,  and  substituting  this  for  At.  W.  in  the  above 

equation,  it  becomes       Sp;  G^'=p,  or  Sp.  Gr.=p  a+n  p  b ; 

Bi~\~Tu) 

so  that  p  a+n  p  b  is  a  general  expression  for  the 
specific  gravity  of  all  the  elements  of  any  series,  in  the 
same  way  that  a+n  b  is  for  the  atomic  weight.  The  value 
of  p  will  differ  according  as  the  specific  gravities  used  are 
referred  to  Hydrogen  or  Air.  Below  will  be  found  tables 
which  give  the  calculated  and  observed  specific  gravities 
of  the  elements  of  the  Nine  and  Six  Series  referred  to 
Hydrogen,  which  has  been  taken  as  the  unit  instead  of 
Air,  as  we  thus  in  great  measure  avoid  fractions.  In  the 
Nine  Series  p=l  so  that  the  numbers  representing  the  spe- 
cific gravities  are  the  same  as  those  representing  the  atomic 
weights.  In  the  Six  Series  it  equals  two,  so  that  the  num- 
bers representing  the  specific  gravities  are  in  this  series 
twice  as  large  as  those  representing  the  atomic  weights. 
When  the  specific  gravity  has  not  been  observed,  the  cal- 
culated number  only  is  given.  The  observed  numbers  are 
taken  from  the  ''Table  of  Specific  Gravity  of  Gases  and 
Vapors,"  in  Graham's  Elements  of  Chemistry,  which  is 
a  very  complete  collection  of  all  known  data.  For  the 
other  series,  we  have  only  occasional  data,  so  that  it 
is  not  possible  to  give  complete  tables  of  their  specific 
gravities. 

It  is  evident,  then,  that  at  least  one  property  of  the  ele- 
ments varies  in  the  series  according  to  an  ascertained  nu- 
merical law.  But,  it  may  be  said,  this  proves  nothing,  for 
these  specific  gravities  are  connected  so  closely  with  the 
atomic  weights  that  what  is  true  of  the  one  must  be  to  the 
same  extent  true  of  the  other.  It  must  be  remembered, 
however,  that  the  specific  gravities  are  a  distinct  set  of 

332 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 


THE  NINE  SERIES 

THE  Six  SERIES 

Sp.  Gr. 

Sp.  Gr. 

0 

At.  W. 

At.  W. 

Sp.  Gr.  =  8  +  n9 

Sp.  Gr.  =  16  +  n!2 

Specific  Gravities 

Specific  Gravities 

Names 

Names 

Theoret. 

Observed 

Theoret. 

Observed 

Oxygen 

8 

16 

Oxygen 

16 

16 

Fluorine 

17 

Nitrogen 

28 

14 

Cyanogen 
Chlorine 

26 
35 

26 
35.5 

Phosphorus 
Arsenic 

64 
148 

64 
150 

Bromine 

80 

78 

Antimony 

256 

.  . 

Iodine 

125 

126 

Bismuth 

412 

observed  facts,  and  that  the  probability  of  a  law  is  in 
exact  proportion  to  the  number  of  facts  which  accord  with 
it.  Moreover,  the  closeness  of  the  connection  is  unimport- 
ant. Whether  the  value  of  p  be  expressed  by  a  single 
digit,  or  by  a  complicated  algebraic  formula,  is  evidently 
a  matter  of  indifference  so  far  as  the  confirmation  of  the 
law  is  concerned. 

In  this  memoir  I  have  confined  myself  entirely  to  the 
elements,  but  it  is  evident  that  the  classification  here  of- 
fered, and  the  numerical  laws  here  explained,  may  be  ex- 
tended to  all  compounds.  The  elements  of  any  one  series, 
by  combining,  give  rise  to  perfectly  parallel  series  of  homol- 
ogous binaries,  some  of  which  are  given  in  the  table.  The 
binaries  of  those  series  which  have  the  greatest  common 
difference  are  generally  acids;  and  of  those  which  have 
the  smallest,  they  are  generally  bases.  These  acids  and 
bases  unite  together  and  form  series  of  homologous  salts. 
As  in  Organic  Chemistry,  many  of  the  series  are  very  in- 
complete; but  they  are  much  more  generally  perfect  than 

333 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

in  that  newer  department  of  the  science,  and  almost  every 
day  fills  up  some  gap. 

It  will  be  seen,  then,  that  not  merely  a  plan  has  been 
given  for  classifying  the  elements,  but  one  which  will 
also  embrace  all  inorganic  compounds,  and  affiliate  with 
the  similar  classification  which  has  already  been  established 
in  Organic  Chemistry.  We  have  not  attempted  to  develop 
such  a  classification,  since  to  do  it  would  require  a  volume, 
nor  is  it  necessary,  as  any  one  can  develop  it  for  himself. 

That  the  atomic  weights  of  the  series  of  homologous  com- 
pounds follow  the  same  numerical  law  as  those  of  the  ele- 
ments is  easily  shown.  Take  as  an  example  the  series  of 
salts  homologous  with  KO,  N05,  which  may  be  expressed  in 
general  by  KO,  R05,  where  R  is  any  member  of  the  Six 
Series  after  Oxygen,  and  whose  atomic  weight,  therefore, 
equals  8-|-n6.  The  atomic  weight  of  KO,  R05,  must  be 
necessarily  39.5+48+  (8+n6),  or  95.5+n6.  As  this  sym- 
bol differs  from  that  of  the  Six  Series  only  in  the  nucleus, 
the  atomic  weights  of  the  salts  which  are  represented  by 
it  must  progress  by  the  same  differences  as  those  of  the 
corresponding  elements. 

The  properties  of  these  series  of  homologous  compounds 
will  also  be  found  to  vary  in  a  regular  manner,  and  the 
law  of  the  progression  of  the  specific  gravities  in  the  gas- 
eous state  can  be  easily  expressed  algebraically,  since  in 
each  series  the  quotient  of  the  specific  gravity  divided  by 
the  atomic  weight  is  a  constant  quantity.  As  an  illustra- 
tion, we  may  take  the  series  of  binaries  homologues  of  water 
given  in  the  Nine  Series  of  our  table.  It  follows  from 
what  has  been  said,  that  the  atomic  weights  of  these  com- 
pounds equals  9+n9.  With  each  Sp'  Gr-=i,  therefore 

y  i  ny 

Sp.  Gr.=4.5+n  4.5.  We  give  below  a  table  of  the  ob- 
served or  calculated  specific  gravities,  not  only  of  these 
compounds,  but  also  of  those  homologues  of  NH3  whose 
specific  gravity  has  been  observed. 

334 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 


HOMOLOGUES  OF  WATER 

Sp.  Gr.       1 

HOMOLOGUES  OF  AMMONIA  GAS 
Sp.  Gr.       1 

At.  W.       2 
Sp.  Gr.  =  4.5  +  n4.5 

At.  W. 

Sp.  Gr.  =  5. 

2 

5  +  n3 

Symbols 

Specific  Gravities 

Symbols 

Specific  Gravities 

Theoret. 

Observec 

Theoret. 

Observed 

HO 
HFl 
HCI 
HBr 
HI 

4.5 
9 
13.5 
40.5 
63 

9 

i3.'s 

39.5 
63.5 

NHS 
PHs 
AsH, 

8.5; 
17.25 
39 

8.5 
17.5 
38.5 

As  the  series  of  compounds  give  a  greater  scope  for  in- 
vestigating the  relations  of  properties  than  is  presented  by 
those  of  the  elements,  we  may  expect  that  these  relations 
will  be  first  discovered  in  the  former,  and  to  my  conceptions 
Chemistry  will  then  have  become  a  perfect  science,  when 
all  substances  have  been  classed  in  series  of  homologues, 
and  when  we  can  make  a  table  which  shall  contain,  not 
only  every  known  substance,  but  also  every  possible  one, 
and  when  by  means  of  a  few  general  formulas  we  shall  be 
able  to  express  all  the  properties  of  matter,  so  that  when 
the  series  of  a  substance  and  its  place  in  its  series  are  given, 
we  shall  be  able  to  calculate,  nay,  predict,  its  properties 
with  absolute  certainty;  and  when  our  chemical  treatises 
shall  have  been  reduced  to  tables  of  homologues,  and  our 
laws  comprised  in  a  few  algebraic  formulas,  then  the 
dreams  of  the  ancient  alchemist  will  be  realized,  for  the 
problem  of  the  transmutation  of  the  elements  will  have 
been  theoretically,  if  not  practically,  solved. 

335 


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CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 


EXPLANATION  OF  THE  TABLE 

The  formula  at  the  head  of  each  series  is  a  general  ex- 
pression for  the  atomic  weights  of  that  series.  The  names 
of  the  series  are  derived  from  the  ' '  Common  Differences, ' ' 
which  are  the  numbers  multiplied  by  n  in  the  general 
formulas.  In  the  columns  headed  ' '  Theoretical ' '  are  given 
the  atomic  weights  calculated  from  these  formulas  and 
the  values  of  n  given  in  the  last  columns  at  the  right  of 
each  division  of  the  table.  In  the  columns  headed  "  Ob- 
served "  will  be  found  the  observed  values  of  the  same  ato- 
mic weights.  These  have  been  taken  from  the  table  of  ato- 
mic weights  given  in  the  last  volume  of  Liebig  and  Kopp  's 
Jahresbericht  (for  1852),  with  the  exception  of  those 
against  which  are  placed  the  initials  of  the  observers.  The 
last  were  taken  from  Weber's  Atomgewichts  Tabellen. 
In  some  cases  the  atomic  weight  is  taken  at  twice  its  re- 
ceived values,  but  it  is  then  underlined.  The  compounds 
in  any  one  column  at  the  right  of  the  names  of  the  ele- 
ments are  homologous.  In  the  same  way,  those  in  any  one 
at  the  left  are  isomorphous.  The  numbers  at  the  head  of 
these  last  columns  indicate  crystalline  systems  as  follows: 
1.  Monometric;  2.  Dimetric;  3.  Trimetric;  4.  Monoclinic; 
5.  Triclinic;  6.  Rhombic.  The  data  from  which  the  table 
was  compiled  were  drawn  from  numerous  sources,  but 
especially  from  the  following  works:  Gmelin's  Handbook 
of  Chemistry,  Graham's  "Elements  of  Chemistry," 
Phillips 's  *  '  Mineralogy  by  Brooke  and  Miller, ' '  and  Gustav 
Rose's  ' ' Krystallo-chemische  Mineralsystem. "  References 

342 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

have  been  given  only  in  a  few  cases,  to  avoid  crowding  the 
tables.  For  authorities  in  other  cases,  the  author  would 
refer  to  the  above-mentioned  works. 

In  the  recent  development  of  chemistry  along  physical 
lines,  America  has  played  quite  a  prominent  part.    Indeed, 
the   contributions   of  J.   Willard   Gibbs    (1839-1903)    are 
fundamental  in  nature  and  of  broad  application.    He  was 
born  in   New  Haven,   Connecticut.     He  graduated  from 
Yale  in  1858,  where  he  became  (1871)  professor  of  mathe- 
matical physics.     The  following  admirable  account  of  his 
studies  relating  to  pure  chemistry  is  from  the  pen  of  Chas. 
S.  Hastings  (Biographical  Memoirs  of  The  National  Acad- 
emy of  Sciences,  VI,  373)  :    "In  1873  he  published  his  first 
papers,  the  first  being  entitled  'Graphical  Methods  in  the 
Thermodynamics  of  Fluids'  and  the  second  'A  Method  of 
Geometrical  Representation  of  the  Thermodynamic  Prop- 
erties of  Substances  by  Means  of  Surfaces. '  These  were  fol- 
lowed in  1876  and  1878  by  the  two  parts  of  the  great  paper 
'On  the  Equilibrium  of  Heterogeneous  Substances/  which 
is  generally,  and  probably  rightly,  considered  his  most  im- 
portant contribution  to  physical  science,  and  which  is  un- 
questionably among  the  greatest  and  most  enduring  monu- 
ments of  the  wonderful  scientific  activity  of  the  nineteenth 
century.    The  first  two  papers  of  this  series,  although  some- 
what overshadowed  by  the  third,  are  themselves  very  re- 
markable and  valuable  contributions  to  the  theory  of  ther- 
modynamics; they  have  proved  useful  and  fertile  in  many 
direct  ways  and,  in  addition,  it  is  difficult  to  see  how,  with- 
out them,  the  third  could  have  been  written.    In  logical  de- 
velopment the  three  are  very  closely  connected,  and  meth- 

343 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

ods  first  brought  forward  in  the  earlier  papers  are  used 
continually  in  the  third. 

Willard  Gibbs  was  much  inclined  to  the  use  of  geo- 
metrical illustrations,  which  he  employed  as  symbols  and 
aids  to  the  imagination,  rather  than  the  mechanical  models 
which  have  served  so  many  great  investigators;  such 
models  are  seldom  in  complete  correspondence  with  phe- 
nomena they  represent,  and  Gibbs7  tendency  toward  rigor- 
ous logic  was  such  that  the  discrepancies  apparently  de- 
stroyed for  him  the  usefulness  of  the  model.  Accordingly 
he  usually  had  recourse  to  the  geometrical  representation 
of  his  equations,  and  this  method  he  used  with  great  ease 
and  power.  With  this  inclination,  it  is  probable  that  he 
made  much  use,  in  his  study  of  thermodynamics,  of  the 
volume-pressure  diagram,  the  only  one  which,  up  to  that 
time,  had  been  used  extensively.  To  those  who  are  ac- 
quainted with  the  completeness  of  his  investigation  on  any 
subject  which  interested  him,  it  is  not  surprising  that  his 
first  published  paper  should  have  been  a  careful  study  of 
all  the  different  diagrams  which  seemed  to  have  any  chance 
of  being  useful.  Of  the  new  diagrams  which  he  first  de- 
scribed in  this  paper,  the  simplest,  in  some  respects,  is  that 
in  which  entropy  and  temperature  are  taken  as  co-ordi- 
nates; in  this  as  in  the  familiar  volume-pressure  diagram, 
the  work  or  heat  of  any  cycle  is  proportional  to  its  area  in 
any  part  of  the  plane;  for  many  purposes  it  is  far  more 
perspicuous  than  the  older  diagram,  and  it  has  found  most 
important  practical  applications  in  the  study  of  the  steam 
engine.  The  diagram,  however,  to  which  he  gave  most  at- 
tention was  the  volume-entropy  diagram,  which  presents 
many  advantages  when  the  properties  of  bodies  are  to  be 
studied,  rather  than  the  work  they  do  or  the  heat  they  give 
out.  The  chief  reason  for  this  superiority  is  that  volume 
and  entropy  are  both  proportional  to  the  quantity  of  sub- 
stance, while  pressure  and  temperature  are  not ;  the  repre- 

344 


J.  WILLARD  GIBBS 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

sentation  of  coexistent  states  is  thus  especially  clear,  and 
for  many  purposes  the  gain  in  this  direction  more  than 
counterbalances  the  loss  due  to  the  variability  of  the  scale 
of  work  and  heat.  No  diagram  of  constant  scale  can,  for 
example,  adequately  represent  the  triple  state  where  solid, 
liquid,  and  vapor  are  all  present;  nor,  without  confusion, 
can  it  represent  the  states  of  a  substance  which,  like  water, 
has  a  maximum  density ;  in  these  and  in  many  other  cases 
the  volume-entropy  diagram  is  superior  in  distinctness  and 
convenience. 

In  the  second  paper  the  consideration  of  graphical 
methods  in  thermodynamics  was  extended  to  diagrams  in 
three  dimensions.  James  Thomson  had  already  made  this 
extension  to  the  volume-pressure  diagram  by  erecting  the 
temperature  as  the  third  co-ordinate,  these  three  immedi- 
ately cognizable  quantities  giving  a  surface  whose  inter- 
pretation is  most  simple  from  elementary  considerations, 
but  which,  for  several  reasons,  is  far  less  convenient  and 
fertile  of  results  than  one  in  which  the  co-ordinates  are 
thermodynamic  quantities  less  directly  known.  In  fact,  if 
the  general  relation  between  the  volume,  entropy  and  en- 
ergy of  any  body  is  known,  the  relation  between  the  volume, 
pressure,  and  temperature  may  be  immediately  deduced  by 
differentiation;  but  the  converse  is  not  true,  and  thus  a 
knowledge  of  the  former  relation  gives  more  complete  in- 
formation of  the  properties  of  a  substance  than  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  latter.  Accordingly  Gibbs  chooses  as  the  three 
coordinates  the  volume,  entropy,  and  energy,  and,  in  a 
masterly  manner,  proceeds  to  develop  the  properties  of  the 
resulting  surface,  the  geometrical  conditions  for  equilib- 
rium, the  criteria  for  its  stability  or  instability,  the  condi- 
tions for  coexistent  states  and  for  the  critical  state ;  and  he 
points  out,  in  several  examples,  the  great  power  of  this 
method  for  the  solution  of  thermodynamic  problems.  The 
exceptional  importance  and  beauty  of  this  work  by  a 
hitherto  unknown  writer  was  immediately  recognized  by 

345 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

Maxwell,  who,  in  the  last  years  of  this  life,  spent  consid- 
erable time  in  carefully  constructing,  with  his  own  hands, 
a  model  of  this  surface,  a  cast  of  which,  very  shortly  be- 
fore his  death,  he  sent  to  Gibbs. 

One  property  of  this  three  dimensional  diagram  (analo- 
gous to  that  mentioned  in  the  case  of  the  plane  volume- 
entropy  diagram)  proved  to  be  of  capital  importance  in 
the  development  of  Gibbs'  future  work  in  thermodynamics, 
the  volume,  entropy,  and  energy  of  a  mixture  of  portions 
of  a  substance  in  different  states  (whether  in  equilibrium 
or  not)  are  the  sums  of  the  volumes,  entropies,  and  energies 
of  the  separate  parts,  and,  in  the  diagram,  the  mixture  is 
represented  by  a  single  point  which  may  be  found  from 
the  separate  points,  representing  the  different  portions,  by 
a  process  like  that  of  finding  centers  of  gravity.  In  gen- 
eral this  point  is  not  in  the  surface  representing  the  stable 
states  of  the  substance,  but  within  the  solid  bounded  by 
this  surface,  and  its  distance  from  the  surface,  taken  paral- 
lel to  the  axis  of  energy,  represents  the  available  energy  of 
the  mixture.  This  possibility  of  representing  the  properties 
of  mixtures  of  different  states  of  the  same  substance  im- 
mediately suggested  that  mixtures  of  substances  differing 
in  chemical  composition,  as  well  as  in  physical  state,  might 
be  treated  in  a  similar  manner;  in  a  note  at  the  end  of 
the  second  paper,  the  author  clearly  indicates  the  possi- 
bility of  doing  so,  and  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  this 
was  the  path  by  which  he  approached  the  task  of  investi- 
gating the  conditions  of  chemical  equilibrium,  a  task  which 
he  was  destined  to  achieve  in  such  a  magnificent  manner 
and  with  such  advantage  to  physical  science. 

In  the  discussion  of  chemically  homogeneous  substances 
in  the  first  two  papers,  frequent  use  had  been  made  of  the 
principle  that  such  a  substance  will  be  in  equilibrium  if, 
when  its  energy  is  kept  constant,  its  entropy  cannot  in- 
crease ;  at  the  head  of  the  third  paper  the  author  puts  the 
famous  statement  of  Clausius:  "Die  Energie  der  Welt  ist 

346 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

constant.  Die  Entropie  der  Welt  strebt  einem  Maximum 
zu."  He  proceeds  to  show  that  the  above  condition  for 
equilibrium,  derived  from  the  two  laws  of  thermodynamics, 
is  of  universal  application,  carefully  removing  one  restric- 
tion after  another,  the  first  to  go  being  that  the  substance 
shall  be  chemically  homogeneous.  The  important  analyti- 
cal step  is  taken  of  introducing,  as  variables  in  the  funda- 
mental differential  equation,  the  masses  of  the  constituents 
of  the  heterogeneous  body;  the  differential  coefficients  of 
the  energy  with  respect  to  these  masses  are  shown  to  enter 
the  conditions  of  equilibrium  in  a  manner  entirely  analo- 
gous to  the  "  intensities/'  pressure  and  temperature,  and 
these  coefficients  are  called  potentials.  Constant  use  is 
made  of  the  analogies  with  the  equations  for  homogeneous 
substances,  and  the  analytical  processes  are  like  those  which 
a  geometer  would  use  in  extending  to  n-dimension  the 
geometry  of  three. 

It  is  quite  out  of  the  question  to  give,  in  brief  compass, 
anything  approaching  an  adequate  outline  of  this  re- 
markable work.  It  is  universally  recognized  that  its  pub- 
lication was  an  event  of  the  first  importance  in  the  history 
of  chemistry,  that  in  fact  it  founded  a  new  department 
of  chemical  science  which,  in  the  words  of  Le  Chatelier,  is 
becoming  comparable  in  importance  with  that  created  by 
Lavoisier.  Nevertheless  it  was  a 'number  of  years  before 
its  value  was  generally  known ;  this  delay  was  due  largely 
to  the  fact  that  its  mathematical  form  and  rigorous  deduc- 
tive processes  made  it  difficult  reading  for  anyone,  and  es- 
pecially so  for  students  of  experimental  chemistry,  whom 
it  most  concerns ;  twenty-five  years  ago  there  was  relatively 
only  a  small  number  of  chemists  who  possessed  sufficient 
mathematical  knowledge  to  read  easily  even  the  simpler 
portions  of  the  paper.  Thus  it  came  about  that  a  number 
of  natural  laws  of  great  importance  which  were,  for  the 
first  time,  clearly  stated  in  this  paper  were  subsequently, 
during  its  period  of  neglect,  discovered  by  others,  some- 

347 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

times  from  theoretical  considerations,  but  more  often  by 
experiment.  At  the  present  time,  however,  the  great  value 
of  its  methods  and  results  is  fully  recognized  by  all  stu- 
dents of  physical  chemistry.  It  was  translated  into  Ger- 
man in  1891  by  Ostwald  and  into  French  in  1899  by  Le 
Chatelier;  and,  although  so  many  years  had  passed  since 
its  original  publication,  in  both  cases  the  distinguished 
translators  give,  as  their  principal  reason  for  undertaking 
the  task,  not  the  historical  interest  of  the  memoir,  but  the 
many  important  questions  which  it  discusses  and  which 
have  not  even  yet  been  worked  out  experimentally.  Many 
of  its  theorems  have  already  served  as  starting  points  or 
guides  for  experimental  researchers  of  fundamental  conse- 
quence; others,  such  as  that  which  goes  under  the  name 
of  the  "Phase  Rule,"  have  served  to  classify  and  explain,  in 
a  simple  and  logical  manner,  experimental  facts  of  much 
apparent  complexity ;  while  still  others,  such  as  the  theories 
of  catalysis,  of  solid  solutions,  and  of  the  action  of  semi- 
permeable  diaphragms  and  osmotic  pressure,  showed  that 
many  facts,  which  had  previously  seemed  mysterious  and 
scarcely  capable  of  explanation,  are  in  fact  simple,  direct 
and  necessary  consequences  of  the  fundamental  laws  of 
thermodynamics.  In  the  discussion  of  mixtures  in  which 
some  of  the  components  are  present  only  in  very  small 
quantity  (of  which  the  most  interesting  cases  at  present 
are  dilute  solutions)  the  theory  is  carried  as  far  as  possible 
from  a  priori  considerations;  at  the  time  the  paper  was 
written  the  lack  of  experimental  facts  did  not  permit  the 
statement,  in  all  its  generality,  of  the  celebrated  law  which 
was  afterward  discovered  by  van't  Hoff;  but  the  law  is 
distinctly  stated  for  solutions  of  gases  as  a  direct  conse- 
quence of  Henry's  law  and,  while  the  facts  at  the  author's 
disposal  did  not  permit  a  further  extension,  he  remarks 
that  there  are  many  indications  "that  the  law  expressed 
by  these  equations  has  a  very  general  application. " 

It  is  not  surprising  that  a  work  containing  results  of 

348 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

such  consequence  should  have  excited  the  profoundest  ad- 
miration among  the  students  of  the  physical  sciences;  but 
even  more  remarkable  than  the  results,  and  perhaps  of  even 
greater  service  to  science,  are  the  methods  by  which  they 
were  attained ;  these  do  not  depend  upon  special  hypotheses 
as  to  the  constitution  of  matter  or  any  similar  assumption, 
but  the  whole  system  rests  directly  upon  the  truth  of  cer- 
tain experimental  laws  which  possess  a  very  high  degree 
of  probability.  To  have  obtained  the  results  embodied  in 
these  papers  in  any  manner  would  have  been  a  great 
achievement;  that  they  were  reached  by  a  method  of  such 
logical  austerity  is  a  still  greater  cause  for  wonder  and 
admiration.  And  it  gives  to  the  work  a  degree  of  certainty 
and  an  assurance  of  permanence,  in  form  and  matter,  which 
is  not  often  found  in  investigations  so  original  in  character. 
Willard  Gibbs  was  a  member  among  others  of  the  Con- 
necticut Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  the  National  Acad- 
emy of  Sciences,  the  American  Philosophical  Society,  the 
Dutch  Society  of  Sciences,  Haarlem;  the  Royal  Society  of 
Sciences,  Goettingen;  the  Royal  Institution  of  Great 
Britain:  the  Cambridge  Philosophical  Society,  the  London 
Mathematical  Society,  the  Manchester  Literary  and  Philo- 
sophical Society,  the  Royal  Academy  of  Amsterdam,  the 
Royal  Society  of  London,  the  Royal  Prussian  Academy  of 
Berlin,  the  French  Institute,  the  Physical  Society  of  Lon- 
don, and  the  Bavarian  Academy  of  Sciences,  and  the  recip- 
ient of  many  academic  honors.  In  1881  he  received  the 
Rumford  Medal  from  the  American  Academy  of  Boston, 
and  in  1901  the  Copley  Medal  from  the  Royal  Society  of 
London. 

The  preceding  pages  contain  the  most  significant  efforts 
of  American  chemists,  extending  over  a  period  of  a  little 
more  than  one  hundred  years.  The  results  compare  fav- 
orably with  those  of  a  like  period  in  the  early  history  of 

349 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

our  science  in  any  other  country.  The  earliest  contribu- 
tions represented  beginnings.  They  were  carried  out  when 
the  republic  was  young.  Years  of  preparation  and  ad- 
justment followed  for  the  new  nation,  and  then  years  of  in- 
ternal strife;  and  it  is  exceedingly  gratifying  and  encour- 
aging to  observe  that  the  scientists  of  the  country,  includ- 
ing the  noble  guild  of  chemists,  contributed  much  to  bring 
the  national  resources  into  prominence  and  usefulness, 
as  well  as  to  guide  the  educational  development  of  the 
States. 

To  the  Journal  of  Science,  founded  by  Silliman,  were 
added  The  American  Chemist  (1870— by  Charles  F.  Chand- 
ler), the  American  Chemical  Journal  (1879 — by  Ira  Rem- 
sen),  the  Journal  of  Analytical  and  Applied  Chemistry 
(1887,  by  Edward  Hart),  the  Journal  of  Physical  Chemis- 
try (1896,  by  Wilder  D.  Bancroft),  the  Chemical  Engineer 
(1904,  by  R.  K.  Meade),  the  Transactions  of  the  American 
Electro-Chemical  Society,  the  Transactions  of  the  Institute 
of  Chemical  Engineers,  and  the  most  potent  factor  in 
chemical  affairs — the  American  Chemical  Society,  with  its 
admirable  journals.  All  these  have  fostered  the  growth 
and  development  of  chemistry  in  this  country. 

The  maintenance  of  well  equipped  laboratories  in  the 
colleges,  as  well  as  the  very  palatial  structures  connected 
with  some  of  the  older  universities  and  with  the  larger 
state  universities,  are  further  evidence  of  our  development 
along  chemical  lines. 

It  is  not  the  writer's  purpose  to  discuss  the  investiga- 
tions which  have  come  from  the  many  working  centers 
of  the  United  States  during  recent  years,  that  story  awaits 
another  narrator;  but,  if  only  a  desire,  on  the  part  of 

350 


CHEMISTRY    IN    AMERICA 

Americans  to  learn  more  concerning  the  place  which 
American  chemists  occupy  in  the  world's  history  of  chem- 
istry, is  awakened,  this  compilation  of  facts  will  not  only 
have  been  a  pleasure  but  it  will  have  served  a  worthy  pur- 
pose. 


INDEX 


Acetite  of  lead,  67. 

Affinity,  55. 

Agricultural  chemistry,  231- 
235. 

Air  in  charcoal,  91. 

Alchemical  notions,  21. 

Alumine,  63. 

Aluminium,  atomic  weight  of, 
225. 

American  Philosophical  So- 
ciety, 1. 

Animal  chemistry,  69. 

Antiphlogistic  system,  the,  an- 
swer to  Priestley's  argu- 
ments against,  80. 

Apparatus  for  deflagrating  car- 
burets, etc.,  201-205. 

Arabians,  18,  20,  21,  23. 

Atmosphere,  56. 

Attributes  of  matter,  54. 

Bache,  Alexander  Dallas,  230. 
Bacon,  Francis,  25. 
Bacon,  Roger,  22. 
Bailey,  J.  W.,  226. 
Balance,  use  of,  11. 
Becher,  27,  29,  34. 
Beck,  Lewis  C.,  226. 
Blowpipe,  hydrostatic,  165. 
Blowpipe,    memoir    upon,    by 

Hare,  153,  178. 
Boerhaave,    23. 
Booth,  James  C.,  245-246. 


Bowen,  George  T.,  222. 
Boye,  Martin,  236. 
Boyle,  29. 
Bruce,  Archibald,  219. 

Calcination  of  a  metal  in  pure 

air,  83. 

Calorimotor,  190. 
Carbonic  acid,  85. 
Cast  steel,  62. 
Chalybeate  waters,  analysis  of, 

2-4. 

Charcoal,  air  in,  91. 
Chemical  Society  of  Philadel- 
phia, 12,  15,  44. 
advertisements  of,  45-48. 
annual  oration  of,  13,  49,  51. 
junior  members  of,  12. 
officers  of,  44. 
Chemistry,  18. 

publications  devoted  to,  350. 
sketch  of  revolutions  in,  17. 
vegetable,  63. 
Chloroform,    discovery   of,    by 

Guthrie,  226,  229. 
Chymical  analysis,  2-3. 
Cleaveland,  Parker,  221. 
Clemson,  Thomas  G.,  219. 
Cloud,  James,  221. 
Columbian    Chemical    Society, 

208-209. 

contents  of  memoir  of,  213- 
214. 


353 


INDEX 


Columbian    Chemical    Society, 
history  of,  210. 
officers  and  members  of,  215- 

218. 

Columbian  mineral,  41. 
Compound  blowpipe,  153. 

invention  of,  152. 
Cooke,  Josiah  Parsons,  301-304. 
books     and     researches     of, 

305-306. 

on    the    numerical    relations 

between  the  atomic  weights 

of  the  elements,  307,  342. 

Cooper,  Thomas,  128,  137,  140- 

144, 146. 

Cooper,  letter  of,  to  Dr.  Man- 
ners, 129-134. 

Cooper,    professor   of    chemis- 
try, 137,  139. 
Cooper   and  government,  138- 

139. 
Coxe,  John  Redman,  223. 

and  electric  telegraphy,  223. 
Cutbush,  James  S.,  223-224. 

Dana,  James  Freeman,  221. 
Dana,  Samuel  Latham,  222. 
Deflagrating  carburets,  appara- 
tus for,  201-205. 
Deflagrator,  188-189. 
De  Normandie,  Dr.  John,  2-3. 
Dexter,  Aaron,  148. 

Emery,  255. 
Emmett,  J.  P.,  224. 


Finery  cinder,  88. 
Fixed  air,  85. 


Galvanism  and  Hare,  194. 
Geber,  23. 

Genth,  Frederick  A.,  261-263. 
Gibbs,  J.  Willard,  341-3,  349. 

and  chemically  homogeneous 
substances,  346. 

geometrical    illustrations    of, 
344. 

graphical    methods    of,    343, 
345. 

phase  rule,  348. 

thermodynamics  of,  347. 
Gibbs,  Wolcott,  264-271. 
Glauber,  26. 
Glauber's  salts,  26. 
Glucina  in  chrysoberyl,  151. 
Gorham,  John,  221. 
Griscom,  John,  224. 
Guthrie,  Samuel,  226. 

and  chloroform,  226,  229. 

Hales,  29. 

Hare,   Robert,    137,    152,   186, 

191,  192,  205. 
account  of,  by  Silliman,  179, 

183. 

calorimotor  of,  190. 
compound  or  hydrostatic 
blowpipe  of,  153, 178, 183- 
187. 

deflagrator  of,  188-189. 
and  galvanism,  194. 
letter  of,  to  Silliman,  192. 
Hunt,  T.  Sterry,  246-252. 
Hutchinson,  James,  148. 


Inflammable  air,  87. 

Isolation  of  calcium,  195,  201. 


354 


INDEX 


Johnson,  Samuel  W.,  275-276. 
Johnson,   "How   Crops   Feed," 

by,  275. 
"How  Crops  Grow,"  by,  275. 

Kircher,  Father,  26. 

Lavoisier,  12,  20,  30-33. 
Lea,  M.  Carey,  277,  301. 

on  allotropic  silver,  295-296. 

on  chemistry  of  photography, 
282-294. 

on  classification  of  the  ele- 
ments, 298-300. 

on  endothermic  reactions, 
298. 

on  ethylamine,  280. 

on  gelatine,  281. 

on  numerical  relations  be- 
tween elementary  bodies, 
277. 

the  platinum  group  and,  278. 

relative  affiaity  of  acids,  279. 

starch  test  for  iodine,  278. 

on  urea,  280. 
Light,  56. 

McCauslin,  Albert,  Dr.,  7. 

McNevin,  William,  Dr.,  224. 

Maclean,  John,  92,  97,  147-148. 

Maclean,     John,     letter     from 
Woodhouse  to,  92. 

Madison,  Jv  5. 

Mallet,  John  W.,  276. 

determination  of  atomic 
weights  by,  276-277. 

Mather,  W.  W.,  225. 

and  atomic  weight  of  alum- 
inium, 225. 


Matter,  attributes  of,  54. 
Mayow,  28. 
Medicine,  69. 
Mineralogy,  58. 
Mitchill,  Samuel  Latham,  148- 
149. 

Niagara  Falls,  7. 

Niter,  60. 

Norton,  John  P.,  231. 

Observations  on  methods  of  ob- 
taining oxygenous  gas,  97- 
100,  101,  102. 

Olmstead,  Denison,  223. 

Oxygenated  muriate  of  potash, 
61. 

Paracelsus,  23-24. 

Pascalis,  Felix,  49. 

Pathology,  71. 

Peter  the  Hermit,  20 

Pharmacy,  73. 

Philadelphia,  Chemical  Society 

of,  12,  13,  15. 
Philadelphia  Laboratory,  15. 
Philosophers'  stone,  21. 
Phlogiston,  27. 
Phosphorus,  72. 
Physiology,  71. 

Potassium,  apparatus  for  isola- 
tion of,  135-136. 

discovery  of,  129. 

obtained  by  Woodhouse,  134. 
Precipitation  of  one  metal  by 

another,  89-90. 
Prescott,  Albert  B.,  272-274. 
Priestley,  20,  29-30,  35,  76,  82- 
87,  91-93,  95-97,  103,  147. 


355 


INDEX 


Priestley,  account  of,  by  Silli- 

man,  118-120. 
arguments  of,  80. 
description  of,  by  Caldwell, 

144-145. 

letter    of,    to    Dr.    Mitchill, 
112-118. 

to  Rush,  110. 
letter  to,   from  Prof.    Rush, 

109. 

in    the  minutes   of   Trustees 
of  University  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, 111-112. 
obituary  notices  of,  121-127. 
Production    of    potassium    by 

Cooper,  128. 

Publications  devoted  to  chem- 
istry,  350. 
Pugh,  Evan,  231. 

and    agricultural    chemistry, 
231,  235. 

Revolutions  in  chemistry,  17. 

notes  on,  36,  41. 
Rittenhouse,  5. 
Rogers  Brothers,  135. 
Rogers,  Henry  D.,  236. 
Rogers,  James  B..  235. 
Rogers,  Robert  E.,  236-241. 
Rogers,  William  B.,  236. 

Seybert,  Adam,  150. 

analysis  of  air  by,  150. 
Seybert,  Henry,  151. 
Silliinan,   Benjamin,   103,   192, 
206-208. 


Silliman,  account  of  Hare  by, 

179,  183. 
on  Hare's  blowpipe,  179. 

Smith,  John  Lawrence,  252-260. 

Smith,  Thomas  P.,  15,  41,  42, 
44. 

Society,  Chemical,  of  Philadel- 
phia, 12. 

Spray  of  the  falls,   7. 

Stahl,  27,  29,  34. 

Sweet  springs,  experiments 
upon,  5. 

Torrey,  John,  220-221. 
Troost,  Gerard,  222. 

Van  Helmont,  24. 
Yamixem,  Lardner,  220. 

Woodhouse,  James,  12,  75-76, 
91-92,  97,  104,  106-108. 
148. 

and  the  metal  potassium,  134. 
answer  of,  to  Priestley.  80. 
letter  of,  to  John  Maclean, 

92. 
opinion     of,     on     Benjamin 

Rush,   106. 
word-picture  of,  by  Silliman, 

103-106. 

Wetherill,  Charles  M.,  235. 
Wormley,  Theodore  G.,  242-244. 

"Young  Chemist's  Pocket  Com- 
panion," 77-79. 


356 


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